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UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 

Received...  _-l*/Mbf!J/^t 

Accessions  No..2^~M33>       Shelf  No. 


NATURAL  HISTOEY. 


FOR  THE   USE  OF   SCHOOLS  AND   FAMILIES. 


WORTHINGTON  HOOKER,  M,D,, 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE  IN  TALE  COLLEGE, 
AUTHOR  OF  "HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY,"  " CHILD'S  BOOK  OF  NATURE," 

ETC.,  ETC. 


Kilusttateii  b$  nearls  300 


NEW     YORK: 
HARPER    &    BROTHERS,    PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN     SQUARE. 

1864. 


ssss 

G 


By  Dr.  Worthington  Hooker. 


The  Child's  Book  of  Nature.  For  the  Use  of  Families  and  Schools ;  in- 
tended to  aid  Mothers  and  Teachers  in  training  Children  in  the  Observation  of 
Nature.  In  three  Parts.  Illustrated  by  Engravings.  The  Three  Parts  com- 
plete in  one  vol.  Small  4to,  Cloth,  $1 60  ;  Separately,  Cloth,  60  cents  each. 

PARTI.  PLANTS. 

PAST  II.  ANIMALS. 

PAET  III.  AIR,  WATER,  HEAT,  LIGHT,  &c. 

^r^/  3  3 

First  Book  in  Chemistry.  For  the  Use  of  Schools  and  Families.  Illus- 
trated by  Engravings.  Square  4to,  Cloth,  60  cents. 

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nearly  300  Engravings.  12mo,  Cloth,  $1  25. 

Science  for  the  School  and  Family. 

PART  I.  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.    Illustrated  by  nearly  300  Engrav- 
ings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $1  25. 

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Engravings.     12mo.     (In  Press.) 

Published  by  HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  Franklin  Square,  N.  Y. 


VW  Any  of  the  above  Works  sent  to  any  part  of  the  United  States,  postage  pre- 
paid, upon  receipt  of  the  Price. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
d  sixty,  by  HAKPER  &  BROTHERS,  in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  .District  Court  of 


rind  ^»«.«j,  *+j —  — 

the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


PREFACE. 


THERE  are  many  good  books  on  Zoology,  or  Nat- 
ural History,  as  it  is  commonly  termed ;  but  none  are 
properly  adapted  to  instruction  in  schools.  Some  of 
them  are  too  popular  in  their  character,  and  some,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  too  scientific,  or,  rather,  contain 
too  many  of  the  details  of  science ;  while  in  all  there 
is  too  much  matter,  so  that  the  pupil  is  confused  with 
the  multitude  of  things  brought  to  view,  and  there- 
fore obtains  definite  ideas  of  but  few  of  them.  I  have 
aimed  in  this  book  to  avoid  these  defects.  My  object 
has  been  to  cull  out  from  the  immense  mass  of  mate- 
rial which  Zoology  presents  that  which  every  well-in- 
formed person  ought  to  know,  excluding  all  which  is 
of  interest  and  value  only  to  those  who  intend  to  be 
thorough  zoologists. 

It  seems  to  have  been  forgotten  by  most  writers 
of  text-books  on  the  natural  sciences  that  a  book  for 
common  study  should  be  very  different  from  a  book 
for  reference.  Their  books  are  therefore  cumbered 
with  much  that  is  not  of  any  use  to  the  great  body  of 
pupils.  The  true  plan  for  instruction  in  schools  re- 
quires that,  while  the  class-book  should  contain, 
clearly  stated,  only  that  which  all  ought  to  know,  the 
teacher  should  have  some  works  on  the  subject  of  a 
more  extended  character,  to  which  he  can  refer  when- 
ever occasion  calls  for  it. 
A 


11  PREFACE. 

If  a  spirit  of  inquiry  be  awakened  in  the  class  (as 
it  surely  will  be  if  the  text-book  be  of  the  right  stamp 
and  the  teacher  use  it  aright),  questions  will  occasion 
ally  be  asked  which  will  call  for  information  that 
must  be  gathered  from  larger  works,  or  perchance 
from  the  teacher's  own  observation.  This  leads  me  to 
say  that  no  text-book  is  rightly  constructed  that  does 
not  excite  this  spirit  of  inquiry  and  observation  on 
the  part  of  both  teacher  and  pupil.  The  more  it  does 
so,  the  more  fully  is  the  true  object  of  teaching  attain- 
ed ;  for  the  communication  of  knowledge  is  by  no 
means  of  so  much  importance  as  the  imparting  to  the 
mind  the  power  and  the  disposition  to  acquire  it  of 
itself.  Especially  is  this  true  of  such  a  study  as 
Zoology,  which  presents  to  the  pupil  abundant  mate- 
rial for  observation  on  every  hand,  in  the  garden  and 
in  the  field,  on  the  land,  in  the  water,  and  in  the  air. 

I  will  mention  here  some  of  the  books  which  the 
teacher  may  use  with  profit  for  reference  in  teaching 
Natural  History.  Carpenter's  Zoology,  Carpenter's 
Animal  Physiology,  Agassiz  and  Gould's  Principles 
of  Zoology,  Cuvier's  Animal  Kingdom,  Kedfield's 
Zoological  Science,  Nuttal's  Ornithology,  Kirby  and 
Spence's  Entomology,  Harris  on  North  American  In- 
sects, Jaeger's  Life  of  North  American  Insects,  Jones's 
Aquarian  Naturalist,  Buckland's  Curiosities  of  Natu- 
ral History,  Broderip's  Note -book  of  a  Naturalist, 
Harvey's  Sea-side  Book,  Kennie's  Insect  Architecture, 
Brocklesby's  Views  of  the  Microscopic  "World.  Any 
of  these  will  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  teacher,  but 
I  would  especially  recommend  Carpenter's  Zoology, 
which  constitutes  two  volumes  in  Bohn's  Scientific 
Library.  Eedfield's  Chart  answers  a  good  purpose  in 


PREFACE.  UJ 

presenting  to  a  class  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  animal 
kingdom.  '->  -, 

In  order  that  Natural  History  may  be  taught  effi- 
ciently, it  is  necessary  that  the  pupil  should  have 
some  knowledge  of  Physiology.  It  will  be  well  for 
him,  therefore,  to  go  through  my  "  First  Book  in 
Physiology"  before  entering  on  the  study  of  this 
book,  and  better  still  would  it  be  if  he  has  also  gone 
through  my  "  Child's  Book  of  Nature,"  in  the  Second 
Part  of  which  are  presented  such  views  of  Physiology 
and  Natural  History  together  as  can  be  readily  com- 
prehended by  children  of  nine  or  ten  years  of  age. 
Throughout  the  present  work  I  have  been  particular 
to  develop  the  intimate  connection  existing  between 
Physiology  and  Zoology,  knowing  that  a  neglect  of 
this  point  would  abate  essentially  from  both  the  in- 
terest and  the  usefulness  of  the  study. 

The  study  of  Zoology  has  as  yet  been  but  little 
pursued,  and  I  will  present  here  some  considerations 
which  will  show  that  it  ought  to  have  quite  a  promi- 
nence not  only  in  academies,  but  also  in  our  common 
schools. 

First,  this  study  has  a  practical  bearing  upon  many 
of  the  most  valuable  and  extensive  occupations  of 
man,  agriculture,  horticulture,  etc.  Many  animals 
share  with  man  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  therefore 
it  is  important  for  him  to  know  how  far  and  in  what 
ways  to  prevent  their  undue  increase.  Then,  again, 
some  animals  live  on  those  which  are  destructive  to 
the  fruits  raised  by  man,  and  so  are  really  serviceable 
rather  than  injurious  to  him.  How  many  mistakes 
have  been  made  for  want  of  proper  observation  of  the 
habits  of  such  animals!  Many  a  bird,  for  example, 


IV  PEEPACE. 

has  been  killed  because  he  picked  up  a  few  grains  or 
ate  a  small  quantity  of  fruit,  when  he  really  was  of 
great  service  to  the  farmer  or  gardener,  because  he 
devoured  daily  a  large  number  of  worms,  the  grain 
or  the  fruit  being  a  very  small  portion  of  his  food. 
A  war  was  year  after  year  waged  by  every  cotton- 
grower  against  an  insect  which  was  supposed  to  be 
very  destructive  to  the  plant.  But  after  a  while  it 
was  discovered  that  a  great  mistake  had  been  made — 
that  another  smaller  insect  did  the  mischief,  and  that 
the  one  which  had  been  destroyed  in  such  great  num- 
bers was  really  the  cotton-grower's  friend,  for  it  lived 
by  preying  upon  this  smaller  insect.  One  example 
more  shall  suffice,  although  great  numbers  of  a  similar 
character  might  be  cited.  It  is  stated  by  Buffon  that 
there  was  once  great  danger  that  the  island  of  Bour- 
bon would  be  entirely  devastated  by  locusts,  but  it 
was  saved  from  this  catastrophe  by  the  knowledge 
which  the  governor  had  of  a  fact  in  Natural  History. 
He  happened  to  know  that  a  bird  in  India,  called  the 
Grakle,  was  of  great  service  in  destroying  the  eggs 
and  grubs  of  these  insects,  and  he  therefore  had  a 
large  number  of  pairs  of  this  bird  imported  into  the 
island.  They  multiplied  rapidly,  and  in  a  few^  years 
the  locusts  were  exterminated.  But  now  the  grakles, 
their  natural  food  having  given  out,  fell  to  digging 
up  and  eating  the  seeds  sown  in  the  ground.  The 
people  thereupon  were  aroused  against  them,  and 
even  obtained  the  enactment  of  a  law  for  their  exter- 
mination. But  in  a  few  years  they  saw  their  error, 
for  the  locusts  largely  increased  again.  A  new  sup- 
ply of  grakles  was  obtained,  and  their  preservation 
was  secured  by  very  rigid  enactments.  So  high  were 


PREFACE.  V 

the  grakles  in  favor  as  locust-killers,  that  physicians 
were  directed  to  proclaim  that  their  flesh  was  un- 
wholesome, to  prevent  the  people  from  eating  grakle- 
pie,  of  which  they  were  very  fond.  "  But  this  extra- 
ordinary care,"  says  Carpenter,  "  was  injurious.  The 
birds  soon  again  cleared  the  island  of  locusts,  and  de- 
stroyed the  grubs  which  injure  the  coffee-plantations. 
But  when  this  supply  failed  them,  they  proceeded  to 
attack  the  corn-fields  and  orchards,  and  even  killed 
the  young  of  pigeons  and  other  domestic  birds.  In 
order  to  restore  the  balance,  a  sort  of  Malthusian  law 
was  enacted  to  prevent  their  numbers  exceeding  the 
quantity  of  their  legitimate  food ;  and  when  thus  kept 
in  check,  they  continued  to  do  good  without  any  ad- 
mixture of  evil." 

Such  facts  as  these  indicate  the  wide  benefits  which 
the  science  of  agriculture  may  derive  from  accurate 
observation  of  the  habits  and  relations  of  animals. 
The  more  minds  there-  are  brought  to  engage  in  such 
observations,  the  more  facts  will  be  gathered  into  the 
common  stock  of  information.  And  as  the  accuracy 
and  extent  of  the  observations  depend  on  proper  ed- 
ucation in  the  observer,  it  is  important  that  the  ob- 
serving powers  be  trained  early;  and  we  may  say, 
therefore,  that  the  whole  subject  of  the  relation  of 
animal  to  vegetable  life,  so  important  to  the  farmer 
and  the  gardener,  will  never  be  thoroughly  understood 
till  the  study  of  Nature  be  made  prominent  from  the 
very  beginning  of  education. 

As  animals  furnish  man,  to  a  great  extent,  with  food 
and  clothing,  and  a  large  variety  of  articles  for  use  and 
ornament,  an  increased  observation  would  undoubt- 
edly increase  the  amount  of  resources  obtained  from 


VI  PREFACE. 

the  animal  kingdom.  "We  may  go  farther  than  this, 
and  say,  that  if  we  had  been  ready  to  take  hints  from 
the  structures  which  we  find  in  animals,  and  those 
which  are  built  up  by  them,  many  improvements  in 
the  arts  might  have  advanced  much  more  rapidly 
than  they  have  done.  For  example,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  optical  instruments,  a  difficulty  which  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  thought  never  could  be  remedied,  chromatic 
aberration,  might  have  been  remedied  long  before  it 
was  if  that  perfect  optical  instrument  made  by  the 
Creator,  the  Eye,  had  been  properly  examined  in  re- 
lation to  this  point.  So,  too,  paper  might  long  ago 
have  been  made  from  wood,  if  the  habits  of  that  first 
paper-maker,  the  wasp,  had  been  observed. 

Another  reason  for  making  this  study  prominent  is, 
that  its  connection  with  other  studies  is  such  that  it 
contributes  greatly  to  their  interest  and  resources. 
This  is  true,  for  example,  of  Geography.  It  adds 
vastly  to  the  interest  of  this  study  to  have  the  pupil 
know  familiarly  how  the  various  tribes  of  animals  are 
distributed  over  the  earth,  and  what  relation  this  dis- 
tribution has  to  climate,  situation,  etc.  The  connec- 
tion between  Zoology  and  Geology  is  of  the  most  in- 
timate character,  as  the  pupil  will  see  in  the  course  of 
his  study  of  this  book.  Then,  too,  Chemistry  and 
Natural  Philosophy,  especially  the  latter,  have  many 
of  their  best  illustrations  in  the  composition  and  struc- 
ture of  animals,  so  that  Zoology,  with  its  relations  to 
Physiology  properly  developed,  will  offer  no  incon- 
siderable additions  to  the  interest  of  the  two  depart- 
ments of  science  above  named. 

But  the  grand  practical  benefit  to  be  derived  from 
the  study  of  Natural  History,  or,  indeed,  any  of  the 


PREFACE.  VU 

natural  sciences,  is  the  discipline  which  it  gives  the 
mental  powers.  It  cultivates  the  perceptive  and  rea- 
soning powers  together,  thus  forming  that  habit  of 
intelligent  observation  which  makes  its  possessor,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  a  person  of  extensive  general  infor- 
mation, and  is  an  essential  element  of  success  in  almost 
any  pursuit  in  which  he  may  engage. 

In  the  present  prevalent  mode  of  conducting  educa- 
tion the  observing  powers  of  the  mind  are,  we  may 
say,  systematically  neglected.  A  premium,  even,  is 
paid  for  their  neglect ;  for  the  study  of  language,  the 
execution  of  the  processes  of  mathematics,  and  the 
memorizing  of  Geography,  Grammar,  etc.,  are  allow- 
ed to  have  such  exclusive  possession  in  most  of  our 
school-rooms,  that  any  disposition  on  the  part  of  a 
pupil  to  attend  to  Zoology,  or  any  of  the  natural 
sciences,  must  be  repressed,  if  he  wishes  to  maintain 
his  standing  in  school.  And  even  if  such  studies  are 
admitted  at  all,  they  commonly  have  a  very  subor- 
dinate place  in  the  general  arrangement,  and  an  ex- 
amination for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  standing 
of  the  pupil  is  not  extended  to  such  studies,  because 
they  are  not  deemed  essential,  but  otily  extraordinary 
and  ornamental. 

This  strange  neglect  of  these  studies  is  seen  even  in 
our  colleges.  "When  a  young  man,  for  instance,  en- 
ters Yale  College,  he  is  not  supposed  to  know  any 
thing  of  the  natural  sciences,  or  at  least  no  knowledge 
of  them  is  required  as  a  qualification  for  admission. 
And  after  his  admission,  he  is  drilled  in  mathematics 
and  the  languages  alone  for  two  long  years.  The 
natural  sciences  are  wholly  excluded  till  his  junior 
year,  when  he  begins  to  attend  to  Natural  Philosophy, 


viii  PREFACE. 

and  in  his  senior  year  he  is  taught,  necessarily  in  a 
very  hurried  manner,  in  Chemistry,  Mineralogy,  and 
Geology.  Yale  College  by  no  means  stands  alone  in 
this  respect,  for  very  nearly  the  same  is  true  of  most 
of  the  colleges  in  this  country,  showing  how  little  im- 
portance is  attached  to  the  study  of  the  natural  sci- 
ences as  a  part  of  the  system  of  education. 

All  this  is  radically  wrong.  The  natural  sciences 
ought  to  have  a  place  on  an  equality  with  the  other 
studies,  and  from  the  outset.  The  child,  when  he  be^ 
gins  to  attend  school,  is  interested  in  any  thing  that 
calls  forth  suitably  that  joint  employment  of  his  per- 
ceptive and  reasoning  powers  which  we  call  observa- 
tion; and,  therefore,  with  his  first  learning  to  read, 
natural  objects  should  be  made  the  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion. All  teachers  who  have  used  my  "  Child's  Book 
of  Common  Things,"  and  who,  in  connection  with  its 
use,  have  brought  natural  objects  into  the  school-room 
for  "  object  lessons,"  as  they  are  termed,  know  by  ex- 
perience that  the  plan  recommended  is  a  feasible  one. 
This  is  teaching  science ;  in  a  small  way,  it  is  true, 
but  yet  teaching  it,  and  laying  a  good  foundation  for 
farther  instruction,  not  merely  in  the  facts  learned, 
but  in  the  habits  of  observation  which  are  formed. 
There  are  numberless  facts  about  air,  water,  light, 
plants,  animals,  etc.,  which  the  youngest  pupils  can 
understand,  if  they  are  presented  in  the  right  manner. 
And  the  busy  inquiries  which  they  make  after  the 
reasons  of  the  phenomena,  and  their  appreciation  of 
them,  if  stated  simply  and  without  technical  terms, 
show  that  such  teaching  is  not  profitless.  Children 
are  better  philosophers  than  is  commonly  supposed. 

Beginning  thus,  the  natural  sciences  should  be  made 


PREFACE. 


prominent  throughout  the  whole  course  of  education,  not 
only  because  they  contain  largely  what  is  of  practical 
use  in  many  of  the  avocations  of  life,  and  what  needs 
to  be  known  to  give  any  one  the  character  of  a  well- 
informed  man,  but  also  because  they  are  quite  as  ef- 
ficient in  disciplining  the  powers  of  the  mind  as  the 
study  of  the  mathematics  and  the  languages.  It  is 
clear  that  they  are  essential  to  a  symmetrical  mental 
development,  for  when  they  are  neglected  the  observ- 
ing powers  are  not  duly  educated.  And  besides, 
while  it  is  the  peculiar  province  of  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics to  promote  exactness  of  thought  and  reasoning, 
it  fails  to  give  that  exaltation  and  wide  range  of  mind 
which  the  investigation  of  the  grand  general  princi- 
ples of  nature,  the  traces  of  the  power  and  wisdom  of 
the  Creator,  tends  to  produce.  Then,  again,  the  study 
of  the  natural  sciences  aids  the  pupil  in  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  language,  for  natural  objects  and  proc- 
esses furnish  a  large  proportion  of  the  words  in  daily 
use,  and  the  mathematics  derive  so  much  of  their  real 
interest  from  their  numerous  applications  to  the  facts 
which  natural  science  brings  to  view,  that  the  one 
class  of  studies  is  auxiliary  to  the  .pursuit  of  the  other. 
On  the  whole,  then,  we  may  say  that  the  three  classes 
of  studies  indicated  should,  for  the  most  part,  go  on 
together,  and  that  the  only  question  should  be  in  re- 
gard to  the  proportion  of  time  which  ought  to  be  de- 
voted to  each. 

Many  other  considerations  might  be  presented  in 
favor  of  •  making  Zoology  and  the  other  natural  sci- 
ences prominent  in  education,  but  I  will  notice  but 
two  of  them.  One  is  the  fact  that  they  open  never- 
ending  resources  for  agreeable  mental  employment 
A2 


X  PREFACE. 

The  phenomena  of  nature  are  ever  before  us,  and  their 
variety  is  without  limit.  One,  therefore,  who  has 
pursued  the  study  of  nature  throughout  his  course  of 
education  will  never  be  at  a  loss  for  fresh  material  for 
observation.  Especially  is  this  true  of  that  science  to 
which  the  pupil  is  introduced  in  the  present  work. 

The  only  other  consideration  which  I  shall  present 
is  the  moral  effect  of  the  early  study  of  natural  science. 
Ever  varying  views  of  the  traces  of  the  wisdom,  power, 
and  goodness  of  the  Deity  can  not  fail  to  lodge  in  the 
young  mind  sentiments  and  opinions,  which  will  be 
apt  to  forestall  successfully  the  arguments  of  skep- 
ticism that  may  be  presented  in  after  years.  No 
mere  general  views  can  do  this,  though  they  are  often 
relied  upon;  but  the  actual  and  definite  knowledge 
which  study  and  observation  give  is  required  to  effect 
it.  This  benefit  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  The 
preoccupation  of  the  mind  by  clear  and  abundant  evi- 
dence is  a  preventive  measure  of  vast  importance. 
Better  is  it  thus  to  shut  out  error,  than  to  permit  its 
admission  and  then  attempt  to  cast  it  out. 

The  author  has  in  the  course  of  preparation  books 
on  some  of  the  other  natural  sciences — Natural  Philos- 
ophy, Chemistry,  etc. — having  the  same  general  plan 
which  has  been  adopted  in  this  work.  His  object  is 
to  aid  in  the  introduction  of  these  studies  into  the 
common  school,  as  well  as  the  academy  and  college. 

The  books*  which  I  have  already  prepared  have 
been  used  in  some  schools  as  reading-books  at  the 
same  time  that  they  are  used  for  study,  and  with 
marked  success.  The  plan  adopted  is  this.  The 
class  read  the  lesson,  the  teacher  remarking  upon  it 
so  far  as  is  thought  proper ;  and  then  the  recitation  is 


PREFACE.  XI 

heard  at  such  a  time  as  will  allow  a  sufficient  interval 
for  the  study  of  the  lesson.  The  benefit  of  this  plan 
consists  in  making  reading  a  more  intelligent  and  in- 
teresting exercise  than  it  commonly  is,  for  it  is  thus 
necessarily  the  distinct  object  to  have  the  pupils  un- 
derstand what  they  read.  In  regard  to  this  I  would 
remark,  that  text-books  on  almost  every  branch  should 
be  so  constructed,  both  as  to  arrangement  and  style, 
that  they  can  be  used  in  the  way  indicated.  Let 
me  not  be  understood  to  mean  that  I  would  discard 
"reading-books"  altogether,  but  I  would  not  have 
reading  taught  solely  by  them. 

I  have  subjoined  to  this  book  a  full  index,  and  also 
a  glossary  upon  a  new  plan.  Technical  terms  I  have 
made  it  a  point  to  explain  whenever  they  are  first  in- 
troduced ;  and  therefore,  in  the  Glossary,  instead  of 
giving  the  explanation  of  any  term,  I  refer  simply  to 
the  paragraph  where  the  explanation  may  be  found. 

W.  HOOKEB. 

NEW  HAVEN,  May,  1860. 


UNIVERSITY,) 

^%FQ>^ 
NATURAL  HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF  ANIMALS. 

1.  THE  Animal  Kingdom  has  four  grand  divisions,  or 
sub-kingdoms :  the  Vertebrates,  the  Articulates,  the  Mol- 
lusks,  and  the  Radiates. 

2.  The  animals  of  the  vertebrate  sub-kingdom  have  a 
frame-work,  or  skeleton  of  bones,  inside,  covered  up  by 
some  of  the  soft  parts  of  the  body.     In  Fig.  1  (p.  14) 
you  have  the  skeleton  of  man.     You  see  that  somewhat 
round  box  of  bones  which  contains  the  brain ;  the  col- 
umn of  bones,  24  in  number,  extending  from  this  through 
the  trunk  of  the  body ;  the  pelvis,  consisting  of  a  wedge- 
shaped  bone  supporting  this  column  and  two  broad, 
flaring  bones,  m  and  I,  on  each  side ;   the  breast-bone, 
with  the  ribs  extending  from  it  to  the  column  of  bones 
in  the  rear,  and  the  collar-bone,  g,  stretching  from  it  as 
a  prop  to  the  top  of  the  shoulder  joint ;  the  arm-bone,  £, 
with  the  two  bones  of  the  forearm,  n  and  o,  and  the  nu- 
merous small  bones  of  the  hand ;  the  thigh-bones ;  the 
bones  of  the  leg,  v  and  u,  and  those  of  the  foot  of  about 
the  same  number  with  those  of  the  hand. 

3.  That  part  of  the  skeleton  in  which  man  is  like  a 

great  variety  of  other  animals  is  the  central 
column  of  bones,  and  this  is  therefore  taken  as 
the  characteristic  of  the  division  including  man 
and  these  animals.  In  Fig.  2  you  have  one  of 
the  bones  of  this  column,  a  being  its  front  part, 

Fig.  2a_sin,  and  *  the  sharP  rear  Part>  termed  the  spinous 
gie  Vertebra,  process.    It  is  the  TOW  of  these  rear  sharp  parts 


14 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  1.— Skeleton  of  Man. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   ANIMALS.  15 

of  the  bones  that  you  feel  as  you  pass  your  finger  up  and 
down  the  middle  of  the  back.  Each  of  these  bones  is 
called  a  vertebra  (plural  vertebrae).  Therefore  all  ani- 
mals that  have  this  column  or  chain  of  bones  are  called 
vertebrate  animals.  It  is  varied,  as  you  will  see,  in  dif- 
ferent animals  to  suit  different  circumstances,  and  yet  it 
is  in  essential  points  the  same  thing  in  all. 

4.  This  vertebral  column  is  found  in  all  quadrupeds, 
as  you  see  in  this  skeleton  of  a  camel.     The  dark  part 


Fig.  3. — Skeleton  of  the  Camel. 

of  the  figure  shows  the  full  size  of  the  animal.  You  ob- 
serve that  the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae  of  the 
back  make  a  high,  strong  ridge.  This  is  because  to  them 
are  fastened  the  muscles  that  hold  up  the  heavy  neck  and 
head. 

5.  Birds  have  this  column,  as  you  see  in  Fig.  4  (p.  16), 
the  skeleton  of  an  ostrich.  Here  there  are  very  many 
more  vertebras  in  the  neck  than  there  are  in  the  neck  of 


16 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  4— Skeleton  of  the  Ostrich. 


man,  and  near  the  head  they  are  small,  because  the  head 
is  so  small  and  therefore  light. 

6.  In  fishes  the  chain  of  vertebrae  extends  through  the 
middle  of  the  body,  as  yoji  see  in  Fig.  5.     Then  there 


Fig.  5.— Skeleton  of  the  Perch. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   ANIMALS.  17 

is  another  chain  of  bones  of  a  slighter  make  along  the 
back,  their  spinous  processes  being  the  frame-work  of  the 
fins  of  the  back. 

7.  The  turtle  or  tortoise  tribe  have  the  body  covered 
with  an  upper  and  an  under  bony  plate.  But  they  have 
connected  with  the  under  side  of  the  upper  plate  a  true 
vertebral  column.  You  see  this  in  Fig.  6.  The  lower 


Fig.  6.— Skeleton  of  the  Turtle. 

plate  is  removed  from  this  skeleton  of  a  turtle  to  show 
the  vertebral  column  in  its  whole  length. 

8.  This  chain  or  column  extends  out  to  the  end  of  the 
turtle's  tail.  It  is  so  with  all  the  tails  of  four-footed  an- 
imals. In  the  necks  of  birds,  and  generally  of  quadru- 
peds, and  in  the  tails  of  the  latter  there  is  quite  a  free 


18 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


motion  among  the  vertebrae ;  while  in  the  body  of  the 
animal  the  motion  between  them  is  slight. 

9.  In  the  snake  tribe  of  Vertebrates  the  vertebrae  are 
very  numerous,  and^the  motion  between  them  is  as  free 
as  in  the  tails  of  quadrupeds.     Some  species  have  over 
three  hundred,  while  in  man  there  are  only  twenty-four. 

10.  The  skeletons  of  the  different  kinds  of  animals  that 
I  have  mentioned  differ  from  each  other  in  many  respects. 
For  example,  the  fish  has  nothing  in  its  skeleton  th#t  is 
like  the  bones  of  the  extremities  in  man,  and  that  of  the 
serpent  is  composed  merely  of  vertebrae,  with  very  short 

ribs.  There  are  some  fishes  that  have 
no  ribs.  In  the  turtle,  as  you  see  in  Fig. 
6,  the  ribs  spread  out  into  broad  plates, 
which,  joined  together,  make  its  upper 
covering,  termed  the  carapace. 

11.  While  the  differences  are  of  ex- 
treme variety,  the  skeletons  of  all  these 
animals  agree  in  one  thing — in  having  a 
vertebral  column.     They  are,  therefore, 
classed  together  as  vertebrate  animals. 

12.  Connected  with  this  grand  char- 
acteristic of  this  division  of  the  animal 
kingdom  there  is  another,  viz.,  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  great  central  organs 
of  the  nervous  system.     These  are  in- 
closed in  the  skull  and  vertebral  column. 
The  brain  is  in  the  skull,  and  the  verte- 
brae contain  the  spinal  marrow,  which 
extends  from  the   brain  through  the 
length  of  the  body.     Each  vertebra  has 
a  round  opening  through  it,  as  you  see 
in  Fig.  2.    When,  therefore,  all  the  ver- 
tebrae are  joined  together,  there  is   a 
tube-like  passage  through  the  column. 
In  this  lies  the  spinal  marrow,  or  cord, 

MadnSpi'  as  it  is  often  called.     In  Fig.  7  you  have 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   ANIMALS.  19 

a  representation  of  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow  of  man, 
with  the  beginnings  of  the  nerves  that  branch  out  from 
them.  Essentially  the  same  arrangement  exists  in  all 
the  vertebrate  animals. 

13.  The  second  grand  division  or  sub-kingdom  of  ani- 
mals is  that  of  the  Articulates.     They  have  a  jointed  or 
articulated  covering,  as,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  the 
lobster.     They  have  no  skeleton  inside,  as  the  Verte- 
brates have,  but  their  coat  of  armor,  as  we  may  call  it, 
is  their  skeleton.     The  muscles  are  all  fastened  to  this. 
Thus,  in  the  lobster,  the  muscles  moving  the  claw  have 
one  end  attached  to  some  portion  of  the  shell  of  the  body, 
and  the  other  to  the  shell  of  the  claw. 

14.  The  chief  classes  or  tribes  of  the  Articulates  are 
the  crab  tribe,  the  worms,  the  spider  and  scorpion  tribe, 
and  the  insects.     In  the  crab  tribe  the  jointed  covering 
is  very  hard,  being  composed  chiefly  of  a  mineral  sub- 
stance— the  carbonate  of  lime.     In  most  of  the  insects  it 
is  very  firm,  and  there  is  a  marked  resemblance  in  the 
claws  of  such  insects  as  beetles  to  those  of  crabs  and 
lobsters.     Even  in  the  worms  the  covering  is  firm  com- 
pared with  the  soft  interior  parts. 

15.  The  arrangement  of  the  central  organs  of  the  nerv- 
ous system  of  the  Articulates  is  very  different  from  that 

of  the  Vertebrates.  There  is  no 
skull  with  a  brain  in  it,  and  there 
is  no  spinal  cord.  There  is  a  chain 
of  little  brains,  as  we  may  say,  con- 
nected together  by  nerves,  as  rep- 
resented in  Fig.  8.  Each  of  these 
is  called  a  ganglion  (plural  ganglia). 
The  first  ganglion  may  be  consid- 
ered, for  the  most  part,  as  corre- 
sponding with  the  brain  in  the 
Vertebrates,  for  the  nerves  from 
this  go  to  the  eyes  and  the  other 

1  ig.  8. — NervotiH  System  of  an  0 

insect.  organs  of  sense. 


20  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

16.  The  third  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  is  that 
of  the  Mollusks.     This  term  comes  from  the  Latin  word 
mollis,  soft.     Mollusks  are  soft  animals,  most  of  them 
being  inclosed  in  a  hard  shell,  as  the  oyster,  and  all  the 
varieties  of  shell-fish;  and  others  being  naked,  as  the 
slug.     The  central  organs  of  the  nervous  system  are 
ganglia  variously  arranged  in  the  different  orders  of 
these  animals. 

17.  The  fourth  sub-kingdom  of  animals  is  that  of  the 
Radiates.    In  Fig.  9  you  have  a  representation  of  one 


Fig.  9.— Star-fish. 

of  these  animals,  the  star-fish,  which  will  show  you  why 
they  are  called  Radiates.  You  see  parts  extending  like 
rays  from  the  central  portion.  Radius  is  the  Lathi 
word  for  ray,  and  hence  the  name  Radiate. 

18.  It  is  the  upper  side  of  the  star-fish  that  you  see  in 
this  figure.  On  the  under  side  it  has  a  mouth  in  the 
centre.  The  arrangement  of  its  nervous  system  is  sin- 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   ANIMALS.  21 

gular.  It  is  seen  in  Fig.  10.  The  place  of  the  mouth  is 
indicated  at  a.  Around  this  is  a 
nervous  cord  connecting  together 
five  ganglia,  which  are  at  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  five  arms  of  the  an- 
imal. From  each  ganglion  a  nerve 
goes  along  each  arm  ending  at  its 
point  in  what  is  supposed  by  some 
to  be  a  kind  of  eye.  Though  the 

Fig.lO.JeJoJsystemof     animals  °f  this    Sub-kingdom   have 

star-fish.  great  variety  of  form,  the  arrange- 

ment is  essentially  the  same  as  that  which  you  see  in  this 
animal. 

19.  These  four  sub-kingdoms  are  arranged  in  the  order 
of  their  rank ;  the  highest,  or  rather  the  most  compli- 
cated, being  placed  first,  and  the  simplest  last.     This  is 
true  of  them  in  the  general,  and  yet  there  are  some  in  any 
one  of  the  three  lower  divisions  or  groups  that  are  high- 
er in  organization  than  some  of  the  simplest  in  the  one 
just  above  it.    In  the  lowest  group,  the  radiate,  there 
are  some  animals  which  are  nothing  but  a  stomach  with 
an  apparatus  to  put  food  into  it.     The  animals  of  one 
group  are  sometimes  said  to  be  more  perfect  than  those 
of  another ;  but  this  is  not  true,  for  the  organization  of 
every  animal  is  perfectly  adapted  to  its  wants  and  its 
mode  of  existence. 

20.  There  are  many  terms  used  in  classifying  the  ani- 
mals of  each  sub-kingdom,  which  you  should  understand 
at  the  outset.    All  animals  that  come  from  a  common 
origin  or  parentage  are  said  to  belong  to  the  same  species. 
Thus  all  men  descended  from  Adam,  and  therefore  be- 
long to  one  species,  although  they  differ  from  each  other 
in  different  quarters  of  the   earth.     These  differences 
arise  from  accidental  causes,  as  climate,  food,  habits,  etc., 
and  are  not  therefore  specific  differences.     They  make 
mere  varieties,  and  not  different  species.     So  dogs  and 
horses  belong  to  two  different  species;  but  there  are 


22  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

varieties  or  breeds  of  dogs  and  horses,  owing  to  acci- 
dental causes. 

21.  The  distinction,  then,  between  different  species  is 
a  definite  and  fixed  one.     There  can  be  no  dispute  about 
it  in  any  case  where  the  facts  bearing  on  the  question 
are  all  known;  but  it  is  not  so  with  other  distinctions, 
for  they  are  not  based  upon  specific  and  definite  pecul- 
iarities, and  may  be  varied  by  different  classifiers.     A 
genus  includes  many  species  that  are  alike  in  some  things. 
Thus,  the  genus  cams  includes  dogs,  wolves,  foxes,  jack- 
als, etc.,  which,  though  specifically  different,  are  very 
much  alike  in  their  teeth,  claws,  and  feet.     Then  a  fam- 
ily includes  genera  (plural  of  genus)  ;  an  order  includes 
families ;  a  class,  orders ;  and,  finally,  orders  are  included 
in  sub-kingdoms  or  departments.     The  terms  division, 
tribe,  and  group  are  variously  used  by  way  of  conven- 
ience.    The  term  sub-class  (under  class)  is  sometimes 
used.     It  means  a  grand  division  of  a  class,  as  sub-king- 
dom means  a  grand  division  of  a  kingdom. 

22.  The  Vertebrates  have  two  grand  divisions,  the 
warm-blooded  and  the  cold-blooded.     The  warm-blood- 
ed maintain  a  high  temperature  of  the  blood  under  vary- 
ing states  of  the  atmosphere.     Thus,  the  blood  of  man 
is  maintained  at  98  degrees,  even  when  the  temperature 
of  the  surrounding  air  is  130  degrees  below  this.     In  the 
cold-blooded,  on  the  other  hand,  the  temperature  of  the 
blood  is  varied  by  that  of  the  surrounding  air  or  water. 
The  fish  when  taken  out  of  the  water  \&  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water,  and  therefore  feels  cold  to  our  hands. 

23.  There  are  two  classes  of  the  warm-blooded  Verte- 
brates :  1.  Mammals,  or  Mammalia  (from  the  Greek  word 
/ua/z/ua,  mamma,  a  breast),  animals   that    suckle  their 
young ;  2.  Birds.    The  young  of  Mammals  are  born  alive, 
and  therefore  Mammals  are  said  to  be  viviparous,  from 
the  Latin  words  vivus,  alive,  and  pario,  to  bear.     Birds 
are  called  oviparous   (ovum,  egg,  and  pario),  because 
their  young  are  produced  from  eggs. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   ANIMALS.  23 

24.  I  divide  the  class  Mammals  into  five  sub-classes : 
1.  Bimana  (Latin  bis  twice,  and  manus  hand),  two-hand- 
ed animals.  Man  is  the  only  representative  of  this  sub- 
class. 2.  Pedimana  (  Pes  foot,  and  manus),  foot-handed 
animals.  This  is  the  ape  and  monkey  tribe.  The  name 
which  I  have  given  it  is  different  from  that  which  it 
commonly  has  in  the  classifications  of  zoologists,  and  the 
grounds  of  the  change  I  will  state  when  I  come  to  speak 
particularly  of  this  tribe.  3.  Cheiroptera,  hand-winged 
animals,  or  the  bat  tribe.  This  name  is  taken  from  two 
Greek  words,  ^etp,  cheir,  hand,  and  Trrtpov,  pteron,  wing. 
4.  Quadrupeds,  or  four-footed  Mammals.  Of  these  there 
are  two  divisions,  the  Unguiculata  (Latin  unguis,  a  nail 
or  claw),  and  the  Ungulata,  from  ungula,  a  hoof.  5. 
Cetacea,  marine  Mammals,  or  the  whale  tribe.  These 
have  neither  hands  nor  feet.  They  were  formerly  class- 
ed with  fishes,  but  although  they  are  shaped  like  fishes, 
they  have  warm  blood,  and  suckle  their  young,  and  have 
lungs  and  not  gills.  They,  therefore,  belong  among 
Mammals,  although  they  live  in  the  water. 

Questions. — What  are  the  four  grand  divisions  of  the  Animal  King- 
dom? Describe  the  skeleton  of  man.  What  is  said  of  the  central 
column  of  bones  ?  Describe  its  arrangement  in  man.  What  is  said 
of  this  column  in  quadrupeds?  What  of  it  in  birds?  What  of  it  in 
fishes  ?  What  of  it  in  the  turtle  tribe  ?  What  of  it  in  the  body, 
neck,  and  tails  of  various  Vertebrates  ?  What  of  it  in  the  snakes  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  variety  in  the  skeletons  of  different  vertebrates  ? 
Why  are  they  called  Vertebrates  ?  What  is  said  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem of  the  Vertebrates  ?  Describe  the  arrangement  of  the  spinal  mar- 
row. What  gives  the  Articulates  their  name  ?  How  are  the  muscles 
of  the  Articulates  arranged  ?  What  are  the  chief  classes  of  this  sub- 
kingdom  ?  What  is  said  of  the  covering  of  these  different  tribes  ? 
Describe  the  arrangement  of  tho  nervous  system  of  the  Articulates. 
What  is  said  of  the  Mollusks  ?  Why  do  the  Radiates  have  this  name? 
What  is  the  arrangement  of  their  nervous  system  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  relative  rank  of  the  four  sub-kingdoms  ?  What  of  the  use  of  the 
word  perfect  in  regard  to  organization  ?  Give  the  distinction  between 
species  and  varieties.  Give  the  various  terms  used  in  classification 
and  their  meaning.  What  are  the  grand  divisions  of  the  Vertebrates  ? 


24  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

State  the  difference  between  them.  Give  the  difference  between  the 
two  classes  of  warm-blooded  Vertebrates.  What  is  the  derivation  of 
oviparous  and  viviparous  ?  Name  the  sub-classes  of  the  Mammals. 
What  is  said  of  the  first  class  ?  What  of  the  second  ?  Of  the  third  ? 
Of  the  fourth  ?  Of  the  fifth  ? 


CHAPTER  II. 

MAN. 

25.  MAN  is  said  to  stand  at  the  head  of  the  animal 
kingdom.     It  is  well  that  you  should  understand  pre- 
cisely what  this  means.     We  may  consider  every  animal 
as  a  set  of  machinery,  which  is  worked  by  means  of  the 
nervous  system.     In  some  animals  this  machinery  is  very 
simple,  as  in  those  which  are  nearly  all  stomach  (§  19). 
In  others  it  is  complicated.     In  man  it  is  more  so  than 
in  any  other  animal.     For  example,  take  that  part  of  the 
machinery  that  is  used  in  motion.     Compare  man  with 
any  animal  in  this  respect.     How  many  more  motions  he 
can  make  with  his  feet  than  a  horse,  or  an  ox,  or  a  dog. 
The  dog  can  walk,  run,  jump,  and  paw.     To  say  nothing 
of  other  motions,  observe  in  contrast  the  extreme  varie- 
ties of  motion  of  which  the  feet  of  man  are  capable  in 
dancing. 

26.  There  is  no  part  of  the  machinery  of  the  body  in 
which  man  is  so  manifestly  superior  to  other  animals  as 
in  that  of  the  hand.     The  variety  of  things  that  this  ma- 
chinery can  do  is  so  great,  that  you  can  get  an  adequate 
idea  of  it  only  by  watching  the  motions  of  the  hand  in 
all  the  different  kinds  of  work  and  play  in  which  it  en- 
gages.* 

27.  Look  now  at  the  instrument  or  machine  itself. 
How  simple  it  appears !     You  have  merely  a  thumb  and 

*  This  and  many  other  of  the  points  in  this  chapter  are  quite  fully 
treated  in  my  "  Child's  Book  of  Nature,"  and  "  First  Book  in  Physi- 
ology." 


MAN.  25 

four  fingers  joined  to  the  body  of  the  hand ;  but  observe 
how  the  thumb  can  be  made  to  meet  the  tip  of  either 
finger,  or  to  touch  the  tips  of  all  of  them  at  once,  and 
how  each  finger  can  move  independently  of  the  others, 
or  all  can  move  together.  Then  observe,  farther,  in  how 
many  different  ways  the  hand  can  take  hold  of  different 
things,  such  as  a  pen,  a  whip,  a  rope,  a  string,  an  axe, 
etc. 

28.  What  appears  so  simple  when  we  look  only  at  the 
outside,  is  found  to  be  exceedingly  complicated  when  ex- 
amined within  by  the  anatomist.     The  frame-work  of 
this  machine  is  made  up  of  32  bones,  and  there  are  nu- 
merous muscles  with  their  cords  or  tendons.    Then  there 
are  countless  fibres  branching  from  the  nerves  into  these 
muscles.     It  is  by  these  nerves  that  the  mind  in  the  brain 
works  all  this  machinery. 

29.  Many  animals  have  something  like  fingers,  but 
none  but  man  have  any  thing  like  thumbs  except  the 
monkey  and  ape  tribe,  and  the  opossum  family ;  and  in 
these  the  thumb  is  but  a  poor  imitation  of  this  organ  in 
man. 

30.  While  man  is  superior  to  all  other  animals  in  the 
variety  of  machinery  in  his  body,  there  are  some  things 
in  which  some  animals  are  superior  to  him.     The  horse, 
that  is  so  inferior  to  man  in  the  variety  of  his  muscular 
movement,  has  better  running  machinery  than  he  has. 
The  monkey,  the  squirrel,  the  cat,  etc.,  are  better  climb- 
ers.    Fishes  are  better  swimmers.     And  some  animals 
have  machinery  which  man  does  not  possess  at  all,  as 
flying  machinery.    The  body  of  man,  then,  is  superior  to 
that  of  all  other  animals  as  a  whole,  but  not  in  all  re- 
spects. 

31.  The  body  of  man  is  superior  to  that  of  other  ani- 
mals in  some  things  besides  those  already  mentioned.    It 
is  the  only  animal  body  that  can  maintain  a  perfectly 
erect  position.    The  monkey  can,  indeed,  stand  and  walk 
on  its  hind  feet,  or  rather  its  foot-hands ;  but  its  position 

B 


26  NATUBAL   HISTORY. 

is  by  no  means  perfectly  erect,  and  it  goes  on  all-fours 
except  when  compelled  to  do  otherwise  by  its  keeper. 

32.  There  is  superiority  also  in  beauty  of  form  and 
grace  of  movement.    To  make  the  comparison  correctly, 
take  the  most  beautiful  and  graceful  of  animals,  and  place 
them  side  by  side  with  the  most  beautiful  and  graceful 
of  the  human  race.     Look  now  at  form  in  detail.    Take, 
for  example,  the  upper  extremity  of  man.     Is  there  any 
thing  in  the  limb  of  any  animal  to  compare  with  it  in  its 
varied  beauty  of  outline  as  it  is  placed  in  different  posi- 
tions?    Observe,  too,  its  graceful  movements,  and  con- 
trast their  endless  variety  with  the  very  limited  grace  of 
the  corresponding  limb  of  the  inferior  animal. 

33.  But  in  the  face  more  than  in  any  other  part  is  seen 
this  superiority  both  in  form  and  movement.    And  when 
we  look  at  the  body  as  a  whole,  with  its  commanding 
erectness,  the  varied  grace  of  all  its  parts  as  it  moves, 
and  its  crowning  head  so  full  of  the  graces  of  expression, 
we  realize  that  the  human  body  is  the  only  one  that  is  a 
fit  tenement  of  a  soul  made  in  the  image  of  God. 

34.  This  leads  me  to  say  that  really  the  grand  distinc- 
tion between  man  and  other  animals  is  in  the  mind  rath- 
er than  in  the  body.     He  not  only  thinks  more  than  any 
other  animals  do,  but  much  of  his  thinking  is  wholly  dif- 
ferent from  theirs.     Even  the  most  thinking  of  them 
know  nothing  about  the  difference  between  right  and 
wrong,  or  about  God ;  and  you  can  not  in  any  way  teach 
them  any  thing  in  relation  to  such  subjects. 

35.  As  the  mind  of  man  is  so  superior  to  that  of  other 
animals,  it  can  use  more  machinery  than  theirs  can,  and 
therefore  more  machinery  is  furnished  it.     For  this  rea- 
son man  has  a  much  larger  brain  than  any  other  animal 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body.    The  machinery  of 
the  hand  is  furnished  to  him  because  his  mind  requires  it 
for  the  proper  exercise  of  its  powers  on  the  world  around. 
It  would  do  no  good  to  furnish  a  horse  or  a  dog  with  a 
hand,  for  he  would  not  know  how  to  use  it.     Each  ani- 


MAN.  27 

mal  is  supplied  with  just  the  bodily  machinery  that  its 
wants  and  capabilities  require. 

36.  It  is  because  the  mind  of  man  is  not  only  superior 
to  that  of  other  animals,  but  is  different  in  kind  in  some 
respects,  that  man  has  made  and  is  continually  making 
language.    This  no  other  animal  has  ever  done.    The  in- 
ferior animals  may  have  natural  cries  and  signs,  but  they 
never  agree  to  use  artificial  ones,  and  language  is  naught 
but  a  set  of  artificial  signs.    Some  animals  imitate  spoken 
language,  but  they  never  make  it. 

37.  For  the  same  reason  man  is  the  only  animal  that 
makes  tools,  and  some  one  proposed  to  designate  man  as 
a  tool-making  animal.     I  think  that  we  may  go  so  far  as 
to  say  that  other  animals  never  use  tools  placed  in  their 
way  except  from  imitation  of  man.     And  even  the  most 
knowing  and  imitative  do  but  little  at  this.     "  An  ape," 
says  Wood,  "  will  sit  delighted  by  a  flame  which  a  chance 
traveler  has  left,  and  spread  its  hands  over  the  genial 
blaze ;  but  when  the  glowing  ashes  fade,  it  has  not  suffi- 
cient understanding  to  supply  fresh  fuel,  but  sits  and 
moans  over  the  expiring  embers." 

38.  If  we  look  at  the  mind  of  man  alone  we  do  not 
think  of  him  as  an  animal.    We  think  of  him  in  this  light 
only  when  we  observe  his  bodily  organization,  and  see 
its  resemblance  to  that  of  the  higher  orders  of  animals, 
and  even  in  some  respects  to  that  of  the  lower  also. 
These  two  views  of  man  are  seen  in  the  common  expres- 
sions which  are  used.    When  we  use  such  expressions  as 
man  and  other  animals,  or  man  and  the  inferior  animals, 
we  have  in  view  bodily  organization.    When,  on  the  oth- 
er hand,  we  use  the  expression  man  and  animals,  we  have 
regard  to  those  mental  endowments  which  separate  man 
entirely  from  animals.     It  is  not  in  this  view,  but  in  the 
former,  that  the  zoologist  regards  man  in  his  classification. 

39.  Mankind  are  one  species,  as  already  stated  in  §  20. 
But  there  are  certain  varieties  or  races  of  men  quite  dis- 
tinct from  each  other.     The  Caucasian  race  inhabits,  for 


28  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  most  part,  Europe,  the  western  part  of  Asia,  and  the 
United  States.  It  is  characterized  by  the  oval  shape  of 
the  face,  a  considerable  variety  of  color  both  of  the  skin 
and  the  hair,  and  mental  superiority.  It  is  called  Cauca- 
sian, from  the  Caucasian  Mountains,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  which  this  race  was  at  first  settled.  Even  at  the  pres- 
ent day  it  is  said  that  the  external  characteristics  of  this 
race  are  better  developed  in  that  locality  than  any  where 
else,  the  Georgians  and  Circassians  being  the  handsomest 
people  in  the  world.  The  negro,  or  Ethiopian  variety,  I 
need  not  describe.  The  Mongolian  race,  of  which  the 
Chinese  are  the  largest  family,  is  characterized  by  prom- 
inent broad  cheek-bones,  a  flat  square  face,  small  oblique 
eyes,  straight  black  hair,  a  scanty  beard,  and  olive  skin. 
The  American  variety  has  high  cheek-bones,  large  and 
bold  features,  except  the  eyes,  which  are  sunken  deeply 
in  the  sockets,  hair  generally  black  and  stiff,  and  a  cop- 
per complexion.  In  the  Malay  race,  inhabiting  the  isl- 
ands south  of  Asia,  in  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans,  the 
complexion  is  brown,  the  hair  is  black  and  thick,  the 
forehead  is  low  and  round,  the  nose  is  full  and  broad 
with  wide  nostrils,  and  the  mouth  is  large. 

40.  So  great  is  the  difference  between  these  varieties, 
especially  the  Caucasian  and  the  Ethiopian,  that  some 
believe  that  they  came  originally  from  different  pairs. 
But  the  Bible  declares  that  they  were  all  descended  from 
one  pair,  and  almost  all  physiologists  consider  this  to  be 
also  proved  by  a  candid  examination  of  facts.  The  dif- 
ferent races  of  man  are  not  more  distinct  from  each  other 
than  the  varieties  of  dogs  and  other  animals.  It  is  a  re- 
markable fact  that  animals  which  remain  wild  are  not 
apt  to  have  varieties,  while  in  those  which  are  domestic- 
ated by  man  different  breeds  or  varieties  arise.  Thus 
lions  and  tigers  remain  always  the  same,  but  dogs,  horses, 
etc.,  have  many  varieties.  So  it  is  with  man.  Under  the 
various  influences  to  which  he  is  subjected  in  society,  in 
different  ages  and  localities,  varieties  are  produced. 


FOOT-HA*TDED  AND  HAND- WINGED  VERTEBRATES.    29 

41.  The  races  of  men  may  also  be  subdivided  into  va- 
rieties. Each  nation  has  characteristics  which  are  some- 
times very  marked.  Thus  the  English  and  the  Irish  can 
ordinarily  be  readily  distinguished  at  a  glance.  The 
Jews  also  have  always  been  remarkably  distinct  from 
other  nations.  Then,  too,  we  occasionally  see  an  indi- 
vidual family  with  such  striking  peculiarities  descending 
from  father  to  son  that  we  may  call  it  a  variety. 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  the  machinery  in  different  animals? 
What  of  the  variety  of  motion  in  the  foot  of  man,  and  in  his  hand  ? 
What  of  the  apparent  simplicity  of  the  hand  as  an  instrument  ?  What 
of  its  movements  ?  What  of  its  internal  structure  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  thumb  ?  In  what  consists  the  chief  superiority  of  the  frame  of 
man  to  that  of  other  animals  ?  In  what  respects  are  some  animals 
superior  to  him  ?  What  is  said  of  his  erectness  ?  What  of  his  form 
and  mode  of  movement  ?  What  of  his  face  ?  What  is  the  grand  dis- 
tinction between  man  and  other  animals  ?  What  is  said  of  the  ma- 
chinery which  the  mind  uses  ?  What  is  said  of  language  ?  What  of 
making  tools  ?  What  two  views  are  taken  of  man,  and  to  what  modes 
of  expression  do  these  give  rise  ?  How  many  varieties  are  there  of 
the  human  race,  and  what  are  they  ?  Describe  the  Caucasian,  the 
Ethiopian,  the  Mongolian,  the  American,  the  Malay.  What  is  the 
testimony  of  the  Bible  as  to  their  origin  ?  Give  the  comparison  be- 
tween the  varieties  of  the  human  race,  and  the  varieties  in  animals. 
What  is  said  of  national  and  family  varieties  ? 


CHAPTER  III. 

FOOT-HANDED   AND   HAND-WINGED   VERTEBRATES. 

42.  THE  sub-class  which  I  call  Pedimana  is  termed, 
in  the  common  classifications  of  zoologists,  the  order 
Quadrumana,  four-handed  animals.  It  is  the  ape  and 
monkey-tribe.  I  have  already  spoken  in  Chapter  II.  of 
the  capabilities  of  the  hand  of  man  as  an  instrument. 
If  we  compare  them  with  the  very  limited  capabilities  of 
the  hand  of  the  ape  or  monkey,  we  must  agree  with  Sir 
Charles  Bell,  who  says  that  "  we  ought  to  define  the 


30  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

hand  as  belonging  exclusively  to  man."  The  chief  ob- 
ject in  the  construction  of  the  so-called  hands  of  this 
tribe  is  to  enable  them  to  grasp  the  limbs  of  trees  in 
climbing,  in  which  they  are  greatly  skilled.  They  are 
very  imitative  beings ;  but,  even  when  they  are  subject- 
ed to  long  training,  they  can  do  but  a  few  of  the  many 
things  that  can  be  done  by  the  hands  of  man.  On  the 
whole,  we  may  say  that  they  have  four  members  which 
partake  in  part  of  the  character  of  a  hand,  and  in  part 
of  that  of  a  foot.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  I  have  adopt- 
ed the  name  of  Pedimana,  foot-handed.  There  is  an- 
other reason  for  this  in  the  fact  stated  by  Dr.  Carpenter, 
that  one  large  division  of  this  tribe  have  this  resemblance 
to  hands  in  only  one  pair  of  the  extremities,  and  that  the 
hinder  pair.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  he  suggested  the 
name  which  I  have  adopted,  giving  it  less  breadth  of 
meaning,  however,  than  I  do.  The  suggestion  is  so  good 
a  one,  that  I  wonder  that  he  did  not  adopt  it  in  his  clas- 
sification.* 

*  I  may  be  considered  by  some  as  presumptuous  in  thus  changing 
a  name  which  has  so  long  been  retained  in  zoological  classifications 
that  it  has  almost  acquired  a  right  to  its  place  by  possession.  But 
if  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Carpenter  be  a  correct  one,  following  it  out 
fully  can  not  only  do  no  harm,  but  will  certainly  do  good  by  placing 
the  subject  in  its  true  light.  If  Sir  Charles  Bell  is  right  in  saying 
that  no  animal  but  man  has  truly  a  hand,  and  if  the  estimate  which, 
in  Chapter  II.,  I  have  put  upon  this  instrument,  as  fitly  corresponding 
with  man's  mental  capabilities,  be  correct,  it  is  surely  going  very  wide  of 
the  truth  to  call  the  hand-feet  of  the  ape  and  monkey  tribe  real  hands. 

In  this  connection,  I  will  remark  on  another  change  that  I  have 
made  in  the  commonly  received  classification.  Ordinarily,  man  is  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  orders  of  the  sub-class  Unguiculata.  But  I  have 
put  him  (§  24)  in  a  sub-class  by  himself,  thus  not  only  separating  him 
more  distinctly  from  other  animals,  as  I  think  truth  requires,  but  se- 
curing in  other  respects  a  more  natural  classification  of  the  whole  class 
of  Mammalia. 

In  some  classifications  man  is  placed  in  even  nearer  relations  to 
other  animals  than  in  the  one  ordinarily  received.  Thus,  in  that  re- 
tained up  to  the  present  time  in  the  British  Museum,  the  first  order  of 
the  class  Mammalia  is  Primates,  including  man,  apes,  monkeys,  bab- 


FOOT-HANDED    AND    HAND-WINGED    VERTEBRATES.     31 

43.  There  are  three  divisions  of  this  sub-class  ordina- 
rily recognized  :  the  Simiadse,  or  monkey  tribe  of  the 
Old  World ;  the  Cebidae,  or  monkey  tribe  of  the  New 
World ;  and  the  LemuridaB,  which  are  found  chiefly  in 
the  island  of  Madagascar,  and  to  some  extent  in  Africa 
and  India.     All  these  animals  are  inhabitants  of  tropical 
climates,  and  live  chiefly  on  fruits,  in  getting  which  from 
trees  most  of  them  show  greater  agility  than  any  other 
animals.     They  are  disposed  to  gather  in  troops,  a  tree 
sometimes   having   nearly   a  hundred  monkeys  in  its 
branches. 

44.  The  Simiada3  are  classed  in  three  divisions:  the 
apes,  which  have  no  tails ;  the  baboons,  that  have  very 
short  ones ;  and  the  monkeys,  that  have  long  ones.    I 
will  notice  some  of  the  prominent  species  of  each. 

45.  The  Chimpanzee,  Fig.  1 1,  which  is  in  shape  more  like 


Fig.  11. — Chimpanzee, 

oons,  and  bats,  as  the  different  families  of  the  order,  the  second  order 
being  Ferae,  or  wild  beasts.  Such  a  classification  is  not  merely  incor- 
rect, but  ridiculous. 


32 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


man  than  any  other  animal,  is  found  in  the  west  part  of 
Africa.  Its  height  is  from  four  to  five  feet.  It  common- 
ly goes  on  all-fours,  but  it  walks  occasionally  on  its  hind- 
er hand-feet,  though  not  with  the  erectness  of  man.  Its 
ears  are  very  large,  and  it  has  long,  black,  coarse  hair, 
which  hangs  in  heavy  whiskers  about  its  cheeks.  It 
climbs  trees  readily,  sometimes  for  observation,  and  some- 
times to  gather  food ;  and  it  makes  a  nest  for  itself  by 
twining  branches  of  trees  together,  in  which  it  spends 
much  of  its  time.  Its  strength  is  astonishing ;  it  being 
able  to  break  off  branches  which  two  men  together  can 
not  bend. 

46.  The  Orang-outang,  Fig.  12,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 


Fig.  12.— Orang-outang. 

islands  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra.  This  is  the  largest  of 
the  apes,  having  been  known  to  be  in  some  cases  over 
seven  feet  high.  Its  arms  are  of  great  length,  reaching 
to  the  ground  when  it  is  erect.  It  can  not  stand  as  well 


FOOT-HANDED   AND    HAND-WINGED   VEETEBEATES.     33 

as  the  Chimpanzee  can,  for  it  is  so  bow-legged  that  the 
soles  of  the  feet  turn  in  toward  each  other.  Like  the 
Chimpanzee,  it  is  great  at  climbing,  in  doing  which  its 
long  arms  are  very  serviceable.  When  young  it  is  very 
teachable,  and  has  been  taught  to  make  its  own  bed,  and 
to  manage  a  cup  and  saucer  and  spoon  tolerably  well. 
Both  the  Chimpanzee  and  the  Orang-outang  have  a  gravi- 
ty and  apparent  thoughtfulness  which  are  quite  laughable. 

47.  There  are  some  smaller  apes  of  an  interesting  char- 
acter.   The  Agile  Gibbon,  so  called  from  the  agility  with 
which  it  leaps  from  branch  to  branch,  is  a  native  of  Su- 
matra.    Its  height  is  about  three  feet.     A  female  of  this 
species  was  some  time  since  exhibited  in  London.     She 
would  leap  over  a  distance  of  eighteen  feet,  and  catch 
apples  or  nuts  thrown  up  to  her  as  she  passed.     As  she 
leaped  back  and  forth,  which  she  did  with  great  rapidity, 
she  uttered  a  very  loud  but  musical  cry.    She  was  a  tame 
and  gentle  animal,  and  liked  to  be  caressed. 

48.  I  will  notice  but  two  of  the  many  species  of  mon- 
keys of  the  Old  World.     The  Entellus,  Fig.  13,  is  found 
in  India.    It  preys  upon  serpents.    In  the  attitude  which 
you  see  here  it  steals  quietly  upon  the  serpent  while  it  is 


Fig.  13.— Entellus. 

B  2 


34 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


asleep,  and  seizing  it  by  the  neck,  takes  it  to  a  stone,  and 
knocks  its  head  against  it  till  it  is  dead.  It  then  throws 
the  snake  to  the  young  monkeys,  who  play  with  it  as  a 
kitten  does  with  a  mouse  killed  by  the  old  cat.  It  is  re- 
garded with  great  reverence  by  the  natives,  and  receives 
even  divine  honors  from  them.  Splendid  temples  are 
dedicated  to  these  monkeys ;  there  are  hospitals  for  their 
treatment  when  sick ;  fortunes  are  bequeathed  for  their 
support ;  and  though  the  murder  of  a  man  is  often  pun- 
ished only  by  a  small  fine,  the  killing  of  one  of  these  mon- 
keys is  invariably  punished  with  death.  Thus  cared  for, 
they  abound  in  great  numbers,  and  though  they  enter 
houses  to  plunder  eatables,  their  visits  are  regarded  as  a 
great  honor. 

49.  The  Proboscis  Mon- 
key, Fig.  1 4,  so  called  from 
the   extraordinary  projec- 
tion of  its  nose,  is  a  native 
of  Borneo. 

50.  The  baboons  have 
very    short    tails.      Their 
bodies  are  stout  and  thick- 
set.    The  temper  of  most 
of  them  is  very  ferocious, 
and  Cuvier   says  that  he 
•has  seen  several  of  the  Man- 
drill species   die  of  rage. 
Those  species  of  baboons 
that  live  in  Asia  are  of  a 

much  milder  character  than  those  found  in  Africa.  There 
is  only  one  locality  in  Europe  where  any  of  the  Pedimana 
tribe  are  found,  and  that  is  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar.  One 
species  of  the  baboon,  improperly  called  the  Barbary  Ape, 
abounds  there.  It  is  probably  not  a  native,  but  was  orig- 
inally introduced  from  the  African  side  of  the  strait. 

51.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  baboons  are  the 
only  Mammalia  that  exhibit  bright  colors  upon  their 


14.— Proboscis  Monkey. 


FOOT-HANDED   AND    HAND-WINGED    VEETEBRATES.     35 

skins.     The  Mandrill,  Fig.  15,  the  largest  and  fiercest  of 
the  class,  is  prominent  in  this  respect.     Its  colors  are 


Fig.  15.— Mandrill. 

very  brilliant  and  various.  Being  as  tall  as  a  man  when 
erect,  it  presents  a  singular  and  formidable  appearance. 
Its  head  is  large,  with  very  prominent  eyebrows,  and 
small,  deeply-sunk  eyes ;  the  cheek  bones  are  enormous, 
with  large  prominences  on  it  of  light  blue,  deep  purple, 
and  scarlet ;  its  hair  is  an  olive  brown  above  and  silvery 
gray  below,  but  of  a  deep  orange  under  the  chin ;  the 
ears  are  violet-black,  and  the  hinder  parts  of  its  body  are 
a  deep  scarlet.  This  is  Carpenter's  description.  The 
colors  must  vary  in  different  cases,  as  I  find  them  some- 
what differently  described  by  others. 

52.  The  American  monkeys  are  different  species  from 
those  which  we  find  in  the  Old  World.  Some  of  the 
particulars  in  which  they  differ  from  them  I  will  men- 
tion. They  are  generally  much  smaller.  The  thumb  is 
a  very  diminutive  affair,  and  can  not  be  brought  in  op- 
position to  the  fingers.  In  some  cases  it  is  wanting. 
The  nostrils  are  wide  apart,  and  open  sidewise,  while  in 
the  monkeys  of  Asia  and  Africa  they  are  near  together, 


36 


NATURAL    HISTOKY. 


and  open  downward.  This  makes  a  great  difference  in 
the  aspect  of  the  face.  The  monkeys  of  the  Old  World 
have  cheek-pouches — that  is,  their  cheeks  are  so  loose 
and  bag-like  that  they  can  stow  away  in  them  quite  a 
quantity  of  nuts  and  other  fruits  as  they  gather  them. 
These  are  not  seen  in  American  monkeys.  The  tails  of 
American  monkeys  are  in  most  species  very  long,  and  in 
many  of  them  it  is  used  as  a  sort  of  fifth  hand  in  climb- 
ing. They  are  inhabitants  of  the  northern  half  of  South 
America.  They  are  especially  abundant  in  the  vast  for- 
est-plains between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon.  They 
live  in  trees,  and  pass  from  one  tree  to  another  with  the 
same  facility  that  squirrels  do  with  us.* 

53.  I  will  notice  but  three  of  the  many  species.     The 
Coaita  Spider  Monkey,  Fig.  16,  uses  its  tail,  as  you  see, 


Fig.  1C.— Coaita  Spider  Monkey. 

in  climbing.  It  has  been  known  to  hang  to  a  branch  by 
it  for  some  time  after  being  killed  by  a  shot.  It  usos  its 
tail  also  to  feel  with,  and  to  seize  small  things,  such  as 
eggs.  For  these  purposes  the  end  is  destitute  of  hair, 
and  is  very  sensitive.  This  animal  is  easily  chilled,  and 

*  Animals  that  live  thus  are  said  to  be  arboreal  in  their  habits,  from 
the  Latin  word  arbor,  tree. 


FOOT-HANDED    AND    HAND-WINGED    VERTEBRATES.     37 


in  cold  weather  it  winds  its  tail  around  its  body  for 
warmth. 

54.  The  Marmosets,  of  which  you  have  one  species  in 
Fig.  17,  are  distinguished  from  other  monkeys  by  their 

sharp  and  crooked 
nails.  They  are  very 
skillful  in  capturing 
insects,  which  form  a 
part  of  their  food. 
Mr.  Wood  speaks  of 
one  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens  in  London 
which  was  very  busy 
in  catching  flies.  He 
caught  some  for  it, 
and  the  little  crea- 

Fig.  17. -Marmoset.  tlire's       eyes       Would 

sparkle  with  great  eagerness  as  he  saw  Mr.  Wood's  hand 
moving  toward  a  fly  which  had  alighted  out  of  its  reach. 
In  some  of  the  species  the  tail  is  very  elegant,  from  the 
different  colors  arranged  in  regular  rings. 

55.  The  Howling  Monkeys  are  larger  than  most  Amer- 
Isan  monkeys,  and  are  morose  in  disposition.    They  have 
a  sort  of  hollow  drum  connected  with  the  windpipe, 
which  gives  great  power  to  the  voice  in  howling.    They 
howl  in  concert  at  sunrise  and  sunset,  often  in  the  night, 
and  also  when  a  storm  is  threatened.     The  noise  is  de- 
scribed by  travelers  as  astounding. 

56.  The  LemuridaB,  or  Lemurs  (Latin,  Lemures,  ghosts), 
get  their  name  from  the  fact  that  their  movements  are 
very  noiseless,  and  are  made  mostly  in  the  night.     They 
live  in  troops,  like  the  monkeys,  clinging  to  branches  of 
trees.     Their  food  is  various — fruits,  eggs,  insects,  and 
birds.     The  posterior  extremities,  in  contrast  with  mon- 
keys and  apes,  are  much  longer  than  the  anterior.     The 
muzzle  is  pointed.     The  tail  is  commonly  very  long,  but 
in  some  species  is  nearly  wanting.    The  fur  is  usually  fine 


38 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


and  silky.     In  the  island  of  Madagascar,  where  these  an- 
imals most  abound,  there  are  no  monkeys.     In  Fig.  18 


Fig.  18.— Ruffled  Lemur. 

you  have  the  Ruffled  Lemur  of  this  island.  In  the  Grace- 
ful Loris,  Fig.  1 9,  you  have  a  Lemur  that  is  found  in  In- 
dia and  Ceylon.  It  is 
skillful  in  cap- 


very 

turing  birds,  which  it 
does  in  the  night, 
when  they  are  asleep. 
Slowly  and  noiseless- 
ly advancing  toward 
its  victim,  when  it  gets 
within  reach  of  it,  the 
Loris  puts  its  hand  to- 
ward it  with  a  motion 
so  slow  as  to  be  al- 
most imperceptible, 

and  then,  with  a  motion  quicker  than  sight  can  follow,  it 

seizes  its  prey. 

57.  I  will  notice  but  one  more  species  of  the  Lemurs. 

It  is  one  whose  skin  is  extended  in  a  fold,  like  that  of 

the  Flying  Squirrel,  between  its  anterior  and  posterior 


FOOT-HANDED   AND    HAND-WINGED   VERTEBRATES.     39 

limbs.  It  is  called  the  Flying  Lemur.  It  has,  however, 
like  the  Flying  Squirrel,  no  power  to  %•  upward ;  but 
this  extension  of  skin  merely  enables  it  to  take  long 
sweeping  leaps  from  one  tree  to  another.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  Moluccas,  Philippines,  and  other  islands  of  the  In- 
dian Archipelago. 

58.  In  the  sub-class  of  Cheiroptera,  or  hand-winged 
Mammals  (§  24),  we  have  the  only  animals  of  the  class 
Mammalia  that  can  really  fly,  that  is,  which  can  go  up- 
ward in  the  air.  The  apparatus  for  flying  is  made  up  of 
a  very  delicate  skin,  without  hair,  on  a  frame-work  of  long 
slender  bones.  The  bones  are  essentially  the  same  that . 
we  find  in  the  arm  and  hand  of  man,  except  that  most  of 
them  are  very  much  longer.  This  you  can  see  by  ob- 
serving the  skeleton  of  the  bat  in  Fig.  20  in  connection 


Fig.  20.— Skeleton  of  the  Bat. 


with  the  skeleton  of  man  in  Fig.  1.  Beginning  at  the 
shoulder,  you  see  first  the  bone  of  the  arm,  then  the  fore- 
arm, and  from  the  wrist  extend  the  bones  of  the  four  fin- 


40 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


gers  enormously  lengthened.  If  the  bones  of  the  fingers 
of  man  were  lengthened  as  much  in  proportion  to  his 
size,  his  fingers  would  be  about  four  feet  long.  What 
answers  to  a  thumb  in  the  bat  is  a  short  projection  with 
a  hook  upon  it,  as  you  see  in  the  figure.  Wood  says  of 
this  arrangement  that,  "  if  the  fingers  of  a  man  were  to 
be  drawn  out  like  wire  to  about  four  feet  in  length,  a 
thin  membrane  to  extend  from  finger  to  finger,  and  an- 
other membrane  to  fall  from  the  little  finger  to  the  an- 
kles, he  would  make  a  very  tolerable  bat."  He  would 
need,  however,  vastly  larger  muscles  than  those  which 
move  his  arm  to  work  such  extensive  flying 'machinery. 

59.  The  wing  of  a  bat  is  a  more  extensive  and  perfect 
flying  apparatus  than  that  of  any  bird.     Hence  the  ex- 
ceeding rapidity  of  its  movements.     In  his  flight  he  is 
catching  flies,  musquitoes,  and  other  insects.    In  his  mode 
of  getting  a  livelihood  he  is  like  the  birds  of  the  swallow 
tribe. 

60.  The  eyes  of  the  bat  are  small,  and  his  vision  is  un- 
doubtedly very  poor.     How,  then,  can  he  catch  insects 
on  the  wing?     It  is  because  his  other  senses  are  very 
acute.     He  hears  quickly.     Especially  is  this  the  case 
with  the  Long-eared  Bat,  Fig.  21.     The  organ  of  smell, 
too,  is   quite    extensive,  particularly  in   some   species. 
Then,  too,  the  membrane  of  the  wings  is  fully  supplied 

with  nerves,  and  is 
exquisitely  sensitive. 
To  prove  this,  Spal- 
lanzani  put  out  the 
eyes  of  some  bats, 
and  then  let  them 
loose  in  his  room, 
across  which  he  had 
stretched  strings  in 
various  directions. — 
The  bats  in  no  case 
Fig.  21. -Long-eared  Bat.  fle w  against  them,  but 


FOOT-HANDED    AND    HAND- WINGED   VERTEBRATES.     41 

readily  avoided  these  and  other  obstacles.  Of  course, 
they  did  this  with  the  sense  of  touch  alone,  and  that 
chiefly  in  their  wings.  They  instantly  knew  in  this  way 
when  they  were  coming  near  something  besides  air.  The 
senses  of  smell  and  hearing  would  help  them  to  determ- 
ine whether  this  something  was  an  insect  or  such  a  thing 
as  a  string. 

61.  The  bats  of  temperate  climates  are,  like  the  frogs 
and  toads,  in  a  torpid  state  through  the  winter,  this  be- 
ing necessary  simply  because  the  insects  upon  which  they 
live  are  gone.     For  this  purpose  they  lodge  themselves 
instinctively  in  some  secret  place  where  they  will  not  be 
likely  to  be  disturbed. 

62.  The  species  of  bats  are  very  numerous.     Some  of 
the  species  in  tropical  climates  are  quite  large  animals. 
The  Vampire  Bat  of  South  America,  Fig.  22,  measures 


Fig.  22.— Vampire  Bat. 

two  or  three  feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  wings.  It  lives 
by  sucking  blood  from  different  animals,  which  it  does 
while  they  are  asleep,  and  commonly  without  awaking 
them.  The  wound  which  it  makes  is  very  small,  and  yet 
it  sucks  from  it  quite  a  large  quantity  of  blood. 

63.  The  most  singular  species  of  bat  is  found  in  the 


42 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  23.— Kalong  Bat. 


island  of  Java,  called  the  Kalong  Bat.  Its  wings  expand 
to  the  extent  of  five  feet.  Its  head  is  like  that  of  a  fox, 
as  you  see  in  Fig.  23.  This  animal  belongs  to  that  divi- 
sion of  bats  which 
live  principally  on 
fruits.  They  live, 
like  monkeys,  in 
troops  on  trees. — 
The  division  is  a 
small  one  com- 
pared with  the  in- 
sect-eating bats. — 
Their  wings  are  by 
no  means  as  extens- 
ive in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the 
body,  and  they 
therefore  fly  more  slowly,  not  needing  the  swift  flight  of 
the  other  division,  as  they  catch  no  insects.  As  their  eyes 
are  large,  they  have  not,  probably,  the  sensitiveness  in  their 
wings  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  insect-eating  bats. 

Questions. — What  tribe  are  the  Pedimana?  What  is  the  name 
usually  given  to  them  ?  State  the  reasons  for  the  change  of  name. 
Give  the  suhstance  of  the  note  in  regard  to  classification.  What  are 
the  three  divisions  of  the  Pedimana  ?  What  are  the  three  divisions 
of  the  Simiadte  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Chimpanzee  ?  Of  the  Orang- 
outang ?  Of  the  Agile  Gibbon  ?  Of  the  Entellus  ?  Of  the  Probos- 
cis Monkey  ?  What  is  said  of  the  baboons  ?  Describe  the  Mandrill. 
State  the  differences  between  the  American  monkeys  and  those  of  the 
Old  World.  What  is  an  arboreal  animal  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Co- 
aita  Spider  Monkey  ?  Of  the  Marmosets  ?  Of  the  Howling  Mon- 
keys? Describe  the  Lemurs  and  their  habits.  Where  are  they  chief- 
ly found  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Graceful  Loris  ?  Of  the  Flying  Le- 
mur? Describe  the  flying  apparatus  of  the  Cheiroptera.  How  does 
its  frame-work  compare  with  that  of  the  hand  and  arm  of  man? 
What  is  said  of  the  power  of  this  apparatus?  What  are  the  habits  of 
bats?  What  is  said  of  their  senses?  Give  the  experiment  of  Spal- 
lanzani.  How  do  bats  pass  the  winter  in  temperate  climates  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Vampire  Bat  ?  What  of  the  Kalong  Bat  ? 


CARNIVOROUS   QUADRUPEDS.  43 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CARNIVOROUS   QUADRUPEDS. 

64.  WE  now  come  to  Quadrupeds  (quatuor,  four ;  pes, 
foot),  four-footed  Mammals.    This  sub-class  includes  most 
of  the  animals  of  any  size  that  walk  on  the  ground.     It 
has  two  great  divisions  —  the  Unguiculata,  or  clawed 
Quadrupeds ;  and  the  Ungulata,  or  hoofed  Quadrupeds. 
In  the  Unguiculata  there  are  five  orders :  1.  Carnivora 
(caro,  flesh,  voro,  to  devour).     2.  Insectivora — Insect- 
eaters.     3.  Rodentia  (rodo,  to  gnaw).     4.  Edentata  (e, 
without,  dens,  tooth).     5.  Marsupialia,  so  called  on  ac- 
count of  a  marsupium,  or  pouch  in  the  skin,  in  which 
the  mother  carries  her  young  for  some  time  after  birth. 
The  division  Ungulata  has  two  orders :    1.  Pachyder- 
mata  (TTCL^VQ,  pachus,  thick ;  c)ep/za,  derma,  skin),  thick- 
skinned  Quadrupeds,  including  elephants,  horses,  swine 
etc.     2.  Ruminantia  (rumen,  a  stomach  or  paunch),  cud- 
chewing  Quadrupeds,  as  oxen,  deer,  camels,  sheep,  etc. 

65.  The  order  Carnivora  is  divided  into  five  families : 
1.  Felida3  (felis,  cat),  the  cat  tribe,  including  cats,  tigers, 
lions,  etc.     2.  Canida3   (canis,  a  dog),  including  dogs, 
wolves,  foxes,  etc.     3.  MustelidaB  (mustela,  a  weasel), 
weasels,  otters,  etc.     4.  UrsidaB  (ursus,  a  bear),  the  bear 
family,  bears,  raccoons,  etc.     5.  PhocidaB  (^WKJ?,  phoke,  a 
seal),  seals,  walruses,  etc. 

66.  Many  of  the  animals  which  we  have  already  no- 
ticed have  the  power  of  living  in  whole  or  in  part  upon 
animal  food,  as,  for  example,  man  and  some  of  the  mon- 
key tribe.    But  they  can  digest  vegetable  food  also,  and 
can  even  subsist  wholly  upon  it.     Even  those  which  live 
on  animal  food  alone,  as  some  of  the  bats,  eat  insects  and 
worms,  and  not  the  flesh  of  the  larger  animals,  on  which 


44  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  true  Carnivora,  with  few  exceptions,  entirely  sub- 
sist. 

67.  The  animals  of  this  order  are  readily  distinguished 
from  others  by  their  teeth,  which  are  formed  for  seizing, 
tearing,  and  cutting  flesh,  while  those  animals  that  eat 
grains  and  grass  have  their  principal  teeth  formed  for 
grinding.     In  Fig.  24  you  have  a  representation  of  one 

side  of  the  jaws  of  a  carniv- 
orous animal.  The  very  long 
pointed  teeth  are  called  ca- 
nine teeth,  because  they  are  so 
observable  in  the  dog.  The 
teeth  in  rear  of  these  are  most- 
ly cutting  teeth,  the  upper 
and  lower  going  a  little  past 
each  other  so  as  to  cut  like 
Fig-24  scissors.  Herbivorous  (herb 

or  vegetable  eating)  animals  have  grinding  teeth  in  this 

rear  part  of  the  jaw. 

68.  The  digestive  organs  of  this  order  are  conformed 
to  the  nature  of  their  food.     As  this  is  similar  in  quality 
to  the  substance  of  the  animal  itself,  it  does  not  require 
any  complicated  process  to  bring  it  into  a  fit  state  to 
nourish  it.  •  The  stomach  is  therefore-  very  simple  and 
small,  and  the  intestines  are  short ;  while  in  the  grain 
and  grass  eating  animals  the  digestive  apparatus  is  com- 
plicated and  extensive,  it  requiring,  of  course,  much  ma- 
chinery to  change  into  blood  substances  which  are  so  un- 
like it  as  these  articles  of  food  are.     I  shall  speak  of  this 
subject  again  when  I  come  to  the  herbivorous  Quadru- 
peds. 

69.  Some  of  the  families  of  this  order  are  not  wholly 
carnivorous.     And  just  so  far  as  any  admit  vegetable 
food  into  their  diet  we  see  a  corresponding  variation  from 
the  true  carnivorous  character  of  the  teeth  and  the  di- 
gestive organs.    The  teeth,  for  example,  lose  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  their  tearing  and  cutting  character. 


CARNIVOROUS    QUADRUPEDS.  45 

70.  The  animals  of  the  first  family,  the  Felidae,  or  Cat 
tribe,  are  wholly  carnivorous.  They  never  eat  vegetable 
food  in  their  wild  state,  and  eat  but  little  of  it  when  do- 
mesticated, as  we  know  in  the  case  of  the  common  cat. 
The  Felidae,  then,  may  be  considered  the  typical*  family 
of  this  order.  The  animals  which  it  includes  are  the  most 
destructive  of  all  the  Mammalia,  and  the  body  is  framed 
in  every  respect  to  conform  to  the  carnivorous  propensi- 
ty. It  has  no  unnecessary  bulkiness,  but  is  made  as  small 
as  it  can  be,  consistent  with  the  required  strength.  Bone, 
and  muscle,  and  sinew  are  well  packed  together,  with 
but  little  fat.  The  limbs  are  short,  for  these  animals 
need  not  to  run  so  much  as  to  leap  in  taking  their  prey. 
They  have  cushions  or  pads  on  their  feet,  so  that  they 
may  approach  their  victims  noiselessly.  As  they  walk, 
their  sharp  claws  lie  back  above  these  pads  in  their 
sheaths ;  but  when  they  wish  to  use  them,  they  thrust 
them  forth  from  these  sheaths  by  a  very  curious  muscu- 
lar apparatus.  Their  senses  are  acute,  and  they  can  see 
by  night  as  well  as  by  day.  Their  whiskers  are  very 
sensitive  organs  of  touch,  which  are  of  service  in  passing 
through  thickets  or  narrow  places.  The  tongue  is  cover- 
ed with  almost  horny  points,  directed  backward.  These, 
which  every  one  has  observed  in  the  cat,  are  so  large  and 
strong  in  the  lion  and  tiger,  that  a  smart  stroke  of  the 
tongue  would  strip  off  the  skin  from  a  man's  hand.  The 
chief  use  of  these  points  is  to  enable  the  animal  to  scrape 
off  all  the  flesh  from  a  bone.  The  cat  uses  her  tongue  as 

*  This  word,  which  is  often  used  in  works  on  Zoology,  I  will  ex- 
plain. In  every  natural  group  of  animals  there  is  always  some  one 
kind  which  exhibits  the  characteristics  common  to  the  group  with 
more  distinctness  and  perfection  than  any  of  the  rest,  and  this  is  said, 
therefore,  to  be  the  type  of  the  group.  Thus,  each  genus  has  its  typ- 
ical species,  each  family  its  typical  genus,  each  order  its  typical  fam- 
ily, and  each  class  its  typical  order.  Then  there  is  more  or  less  vari- 
ation from  the  type,  and  those  which  vary  considerably  from  it  are 
styled  aberrant  forms,  from  erro,  to  wander,  and  ab,  from.  So  we 
speak  of  aberrant  species,  genera,  etc. 


46 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


a  sort  of  curry-comb  to  clean  her  coat,  and  undoubtedly 
this  member  is  put  to  the  same  use  by  other  animals  of 
this  class  in  proportion  to  their  cleanliness. 

71.  I  will  now  proceed  to  notice  some  of  the  animals 
of  this  family.  At  the  head  of  it,  and  of  the  wild  beasts 
generally,  stands  the  Lion.  He  is  commonly  called  the 


Fig.  25.— Lion,  Lioness,  and  Cubs. 

king  of  beasts,  both  for  his  noble  and  commanding  airT 
and  the  power  concentrated  in  his  comparatively  small 
frame.  No  animal,  however  large,  dare  attack  him.  He 
is  found  in  Africa,  and  on  the  Continent  of  Asia,  in  In- 
dia, Persia,  and  Arabia.  He  preys  upon  antelopes,  heif- 
ers, zebras,  gnoos,  etc.  There  is  such  prodigious  strength 
in  the  muscles  of  his  neck  and  jaws  that  he  can  carry  off 
a  heifer  as  easily  as  a  cat  can  a  rat.  He  generally  waits 
in  ambush  for  his  victim,  or  creeps  like  a  cat  insidiously 
and  noiselessly  toward  it,  and,  when  sufficiently  near,  at 
one  bound  secures  it  with  his  teeth  and  claws,  uttering, 
at  the  same  time,  his  terrific  roar.  He  is  not  properly 


CARNIVOROUS    QUADRUPEDS.  47 

styled  king  of  the  forest,  for  he  frequents  burning  desert 
plains,  or  places  covered  with  low  brushwood.  He  com- 
monly sleeps  in  the  day,  and  at  night  rouses  to  search 
for  prey.  A  thunder-storm,  .so  common  in  the  night  in 
Southern  Africa,  seems  to  excite  him  to  unwonted  activ- 
ity, and,  mingling  his  roar  with  that  of  the  thunder,  he 
rushes  upon  his  terrified  and  confused  prey  without  his 
usual  stealthiness.  The  Lioness  is  smaller  than  the  Lion, 
as  you  see  in  Fig.  25  (p.  46),  and  is  destitute  of  the  mane 
which  gives  him  so  dignified  an  appearance.  The  cubs, 
of  which  there  are  commonly  from  two  to  four,  are  as 
playful  as  kittens.  Mr.  Wood  says  that  he  had  two  cubs, 
larger  than  cats,  placed  in  his  arms,  and  found  them  "  al- 
most unpleasantly  playful." 

73.  The  Tiger,  Fig.  26,  is  found  only  in  Asia,  chiefly  in 


Fig.  26.— Tiger. 

Hindostan.  It  is  a  splendid  animal,  three  feet  high  and 
eight  long,  having  black  stripes 'on  a  ground  of  reddish 
yellow.  Tiger-hunts  are  among  the  favorite  sports  of  In- 


48 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


dia.  The  hunters  go  forth  armed  with  rifles,  in  a  sort  of 
carriage  or  frame  on  the  backs  of  elephants  trained  for 
the  purpose.  There  is  much  danger  in  the  sport,  for  the 
Tiger  often  springs  up  upon  the  elephant,  and  reaches 
the  hunters. 

73.  The  Leopard  is  a  native  of  Africa,  India,  and  some 
of  the  Indian  islands.     It  is  a  very  active  arid  graceful 
animal.     It  is  arboreal  (§  52)  in  its  habits,  and  monkeys 
form  a  part  of  its  prey.     It  has  black  spots  in  rosette 
shape,  on  a  ground  of  pale  yellow.     The  Ounce,  a  native 
of  India,  has  sometimes  been  confounded  with  the  Leop- 
ard ;  but  it  has  less  regular  marks,  a  rougher  coat,  and 
a  tail  almost  bushy. 

74.  The  Jaguar  of  America,  Figure  27,  is  much  like 

the  Leopard  of  the 
Old  World,  but  it  is 
larger.  It  is  arbo- 
real, and  chases  the 
monkeys  which  are 
so  abundant  in  the 
forests  of  South 
America.  The  Pu- 
ma, called  usually  in 
this  country  the  Pan- 
ther, is  another  ani- 
mal of  the  same  sort, 
f  o  u  n  d  extensively 
diffused  in  both  parts 
of  the  American  con- 
tinent. It  is  some- 
times termed  the 
American  lion,  from 
its  uniformity  of  color,  which  is  a  silvery  fawn. 

75.  Of  the  Lynxes  there  are  several  species,  some  in 
Europe,  some  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  others  in  America, 
The  Canada  Lynx,  Fig.  28  (p.  49),  is  remarkable  for  its 
gait,  going  by  successive  leaps  with  the  back  arched. 


Fig.  27 — Jaguar. 


CARNIVOROUS 


Fig.  28.— Canada  Lynx. 


i 

this  animal. 

76.  The   Civet 
Cats,  which  are  found 
in  the  northern  part 
of  Africa,  chiefly  in 
Abyssinia,  are  all  re- 
markable for  a  pouch 
near  the  tail  contain- 
ing a  perfume  which 
is  quite  an  article  of 
commerce.     A  rep- 
resentation of  one  spe- 
cies you  have  in  Fig. 
29. 

77.  The  Ichneu- 
mons are  singular  an- 
imals* Having  long 
bodies  and  short 


Fig.  29.-Civet  Cat. 


very  narrow  places,  and  run  their  slender  snouts  into 
every  crevice  in  search  of  their  food,  which  consists  of 
snakes,  lizards,  crocodiles'  eggs,  etc.  The  Egyptian  Ich- 
neumon, or  Pharaoh's  Rat,  Fig.  30,  is  often  domesticated 


Fig.  30. — Egyptian  Ichneumon. 

in  houses  in  Egypt,  that  it  may  destroy  the  snakes  and 
other  reptiles  that  so  often  infest  them  in  that  country. 

78.  The  domestic  Cat  is  so  well  known  that  I  need 

to  say  little  about  it.     The  species  has  many  varieties, 

though  not  as  many  as  there  are  among  the  dogs.     The 

Cat  has  a  strong  attachment  to  localities,  but  seldom  man- 

C 


50  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ifests  that  attachment  to  persons  which  is  so  strong  a 
characteristic  of  most  dogs.  The  domestic  Cat  was  for- 
merly thought  to  be  the  same  with  the  Wild  Cat,  but  they 
are  proved  to  be  distinct  species. 
The  difference  in  their  tails  may 
be  seen  in  Fig.  31,  that  of  the  do- 
mestic Cat,  1,  being  long  and  ta- 
pering, and  that  of  the  Wild  Cat, 
Fig.  si.— Cats'  Tails.  2,  short  and  bushy. 

Questions. — What  are  Quadrupeds?  What  are  the  two  grand  divi- 
sions of  this  sub-class  ?  Give  the  names  of  the  orders  of  the  Ungui- 
culata,  and  their  derivations.  Give  those  of  the  orders  of  the  Ungu- 
lata,  and  their  derivations.  What  are  the  families  of  the  order  Car- 
nivora?  What  is  said  of  the  Carnivora  in  comparison  with  the  ani- 
mals already  noticed  ?  What  is  said  of  the  teeth  of  the  Carnivora 
and  ef  the  Herbivora  ?  What  is  said  of  the  difference  in  their  digest- 
ive organs?  What  is  said  of  some  families  of  the  Carnivora  which 
are  not  wholly  carnivorous  ?  What  is  the  typical  family  of  this  order  ? 
What  is  the  meaning  of  typical,  and  of  aberrant?  What  is  said  of 
the  structure  of  the  Felidse  ?  Of  what  use  are  the  pads  on  their  feet  ? 
What  is  said  of  their  senses  ?  What  of  their  tongues  ?  Where  is  the 
Lion  found  ?  Describe  his  appearance  and  habits.  What  is  said  of 
the  Lioness  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Leopard  ?  Of  the  Jaguar  ?  Of 
the  Puma  ?  Of  the  Lynxes  ?  Of  the  Civet  Cats  ?  Of  the  Ichneu- 
mons ?  Of  the  Cat  ? 


CHAPTER  Y. 

CAROTVOROUS  QUADRUPEDS — continued. 

79.  THE  second  family  of  carnivorous  Quadrupeds  is 
the  dog  family,  including  dogs,  wolves,  foxes,  etc.  The 
dog  species  in  this  family  exhibits  more  striking  varieties 
than  any  other  species  of  animal.  There  can  hardly  be 
a  wider  difference  between  two  animals  of  the  same  fam- 
ily than  we  see  between  King  Charles's  Dog,  Fig.  32,  and 
the  fierce  Bloodhound,  Fig.  33  (p.  51).  Then  we  have 
the  large  and  noble  Newfoundland  Dog,  the  stout  Mas- 


CAENIVOROUS    QUADEUPEDS. 


51 


Fig.  32.-KiuS  c 


tiff,  the  slender  and 
swift  Greyhound,  the 
pugnacious  Bulldog, 
the  brisk  little  Ter- 
rier, the  Foxhound, 
Beagle,  and  Pointer 
used  in  hunting,  etc. 
The  differences,  you 
observe,  are  as  wide 


in  disposition   and  habits  as  in  form,  size,  and  color. 
Now  all  these  varieties,  it  is  agreed  by  all  zoologists, 


Fig.  33. — Bloodhound. 

came  from  one  source,  though  exactly  what  was  the  char- 
acter of  the  original  undomesticated  dog  is  not  settled. 

80.  The  cause  of  the  wide  range  of  varieties  in  this 
species  is  the  influence  of  domestication  referred  to  in 
§  40.  The  degree  of  domestication  is  greater  in  the  dog 
than  in  any  other  case.  No  other  animal  is  so  thorough- 
ly the  companion  of  man.  Cuvier  says  that  the  dog  is 
the  only  animal  that  has  followed  man  through  every  re- 
gion of  the  earth.  His  attachment  to  his  master  is  pe- 
culiar, and  is  seldom  seen  in  other  animals  in  the  same 
degree.  The  contrast  between  the  cat  and  the  dog  in 


52  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

this  respect  is  very  marked,  the  cat  being  much  attached 
to  place,  and  little,  if  any,  to  persons. 

81.  The  differences  between  some  of  the  varieties  of 
dogs  are  greater  than -those  existing  between  different 
species  of  some  animals.     The  Greyhound  and  the  Bull- 
dog, for  example,  are  more  unlike  than  the  Lion  and  the 
Tiger,  two  species  of  the  cat  tribe,  and  vastly  more  than 
the  Tiger  and  the  Leopard.     But  the  characteristics  of 
these  species  remain  fixed  age  after  age,  because  the  in- 
fluence of  domestication  is  not  brought  to  bear  upon 
them.     Even  the  markings  on  the  skins  of  such  wild  an- 
imals remain  unchanged  from  generation  to  generation. 
Stripes  and  patches  are  therefore,  in  some  of  them,  made 
the  basis  of  distinguishing  different  species,  while  in  the 
domesticated   animals   nothing  is   more   common  than 
changes  of  color. 

82.  The  differences  between  the  varieties  of  man  are 
no  greater  than  those  between  the  varieties  of  the  dog, 
the  companion  of  man.     And  if  domestication  can  pro- 
duce these  varieties  in  the  one  case,  they  surely  can  in 
the  other,  where  it  has  a  still  greater  influence.     The 
doubts,  then,  existing  in  the  minds  of  some  in  regard  to 
the  single  origin  of  the  human  race  are  unfounded,  and 
the  account  given  in  the  Bible  is  proved  true  by  an  ob- 
servation of  facts. 

83.  Although  the  Wolf,  Fig.  34  (p.  53),  belongs  to  the 
dog  family,  dogs  seem  to  be  its  natural  enemies.    While 
the  smaller  flee  from  it  in  terror,  the  stronger  pursue 
and  kill  it.    And  yet  it  is  thought  by  some  that  the  orig- 
inal dog  was  a  Wolf;  and  it  is  asserted  that,  though  this 
animal  is  so  fierce,  it  can  be  tamed  when  young,  and  is 
then  as  susceptible  of  attachment  to  man  as  the  dog  is. 
Wolves  commonly  hunt  in  packs  or  bands,  and  are  very 
crafty  in  their  modes  of  taking  their  prey.     Like  other 
wild  beasts,  they  are  exterminated  as  man  cuts  down  the 
forests  and  builds  his  habitations.     In  the  early  settle- 
ment of  this  country  they  abounded  even  in  the  states  on 


CARNIVOROUS    QUADRUPEDS.  53 


Fig.  34.— Wolf. 

the  Atlantic  coast,  and  they  were  not  wholly  extermin- 
ated till  recently.  The  story  of  Putnam  and  the  Wolf 
is  familiar  to  every  one.  They  were  extirpated  in  En- 
gland about  1350,  in  Scotland  in  1600,  and  Ireland  in 
1700.  They  still  abound  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and 
Northern  Asia,  and  destroy  great  numbers  of  domesti- 
cated animals,  as  is  shown  by  a  report  made  in  1822  to 
the  Russian  government  in  regard  to  the  district  of  Li- 
vonia, a  tract  of  country  about  250  miles  long  by  15.0 
broad.  The  animals  stated  as  having  been  destroyed  by 
wolves  are  as  follows :  horses,  1841 ;  cattle,  1807 ;  calves, 
733  ;  sheep,  15,182  ;  lambs,  726 ;  goats,  2545  ;  kids,  183  ; 
swine,  4190  ;  young  pigs,  312  ;  dogs,  703  ;  geese,  673  ; 
fowls,  1243.  The  Wolf  is  a  gaunt  but  strong  animal, 
with  a  skulking  gait,  and  his  aspect  is  marked  by  min- 
gled ferocity,  cunning,  and  cowardice.  There  are  sev- 
eral species  of  wolves,  especially  in  America,  but  their 
habits  and  character  are  very  much  the  same. 

84.  The  Fox,  Fig.  35  (p.  54),  is  characterized  chiefly 
by  its  pointed  muzzle  and  its  bushy  tail.  Its  cunning  is 
also  proverbial.  It  is  usually  concealed  in  the  daytime 
either  in  a  burrow  that  it  has  made,  or  in  one  that  it  has 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  35.— Fox. 

found,  and  comes  forth  stealthily  at  night  in  search  of  its 
prey,  which  consists  of  fowls,  rabbits,  etc.  It  is  a  great 
robber  of  the  hen-roost.  Though  a  slender  animal,  the 
Fox  is  very  muscular,  and  has  great  speed.  This,  with 
the  cunning  which  it  exercises  in  its  various  expedients 
for  escape,  renders  the  fox-chase  very  exciting,  and  it  is 
one  of  the  grand  sports  of  English  noblemen.  Besides 
the  common  Fox,  there  are  many  other  species.  The 
Arctic  Fox,  which  is  found  only  in  the  extreme  north,  is 
remarkable  for  the  changes  which  its  hair  exhibits.  In 
summer  it  is  of  a  dusky  ash  color,  but  in  winter  it  turns 
white,  and  becomes  fuller  and  thicker,  even  covering  the 
soles  of  the  feet. 

85.  The  Jackal,  Fig.  36  (p.  55),  is  found  in  North  Af- 
rica, Persia,  and  India.  It  is  somewhat  like  the  Fox  in 
appearance,  though  it  has  not  so  bushy  a  tail.  It  is  like 
the  wolf,  however,  in  its  habits.  Jackals,  like  wolves, 
hunt  in  packs.  They  are  concealed  during  the  day,  and 
come  forth  at  night  filling  the  air  with  their  shrieks, 
which  all  describe  as  being  horrid.  ,  They  are  very  use- 
ful in  the  Eastern  countries  as  scavengers,  devouring  the 
'offal  which  the  uncleanly  inhabitants  cast  out  of  their 


CARNIVOROUS    QUADRUPEDS. 


55 


Fig.  36.— Jackal. 


houses,  and  thus  often 
save  them  from  pesti- 
lential diseases. 

86.  The  Hyenas,  of 
which  one  species  is 
represented  in  Figure 
37,  are  found  in  Asia 
and  Africa.  They  are 
generally  classified  in 
the  dog  family,  though 
there  is  some  ques- 
tion as  to  the  place  in 
which  they  belong. — 
They  are  exceeding- 
ly ferocious,  and  live 
chiefly  upon  animals 
which  they  find  dead. 
They  will  even  devour 
the  human  body,  and 
are  seen  in  large  num- 
bers in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  armies,  ready 
to  eat  the  bodies  of 
the  slain.  They  are 
among  beasts  what 
the  vultures  are  among  birds,  and,  like  t*he  jackals,  are 
very  useful  as  scavengers.  The  rear  parts  of  the  Hyaena 
are  small,  and  hence  its  shambling '  gait ;  but  there  is 
great  strength  in  the  fore  part  of  its  body  and  in  its  jaws. 
It  can  readily  crush  with  its  teeth  the  thigh  bone  of 
an  ox. 

87.  The  Weasel  family  (mustelidse)  includes  the  Wea- 
sels, Martens,  Skunks,  Otters,  etc.  These  animals  are,  for 
the  most  part,  quite  small,  but  they  are  very  sanguinary 
in  their  habits.  They  generally  strike  the  neck  of  their 
victims  just  behind  the  ear,  piercing  the  large  blood-ves- 
sels, or  drive  their  teeth  into  the  skull.  When  they  have 


Fig.  37.— Striped  Hyaena. 


56 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


once  seized  their  prey,  which  is  a  rabbit,  or  rat,  or  bird, 
or  some  reptile,  they  never  let  go  their  hold.  Few  ani- 
mals equal  them  in  agility  and  address.  As  they  have 
such  long,  slender,  flexible  bodies,  and  creep  stealthily 
toward  their  prey  on  their  short  legs,  they  have  been 
sometimes  called  vermiform,  worm-like,  Carnivora.  They 
are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  spending  the  day  concealed 
in  hollow  trees,  holes  in  walls,  or  in  burrows,  and  glid- 
ing forth  at  night  after  their  prey.  Some  of  the  most 
beautiful  furs  are  obtained  from  this  family,  as  the  Sable 
and  the  Ermine.  Most  of  these  animals  have  a  strong 
odor.  Some  of  them  are  exceedingly  offensive. 

88.  The  common  Weasel,  Fig.  38,  exemplifies  the  gen- 

eral shape  of  the  whole 
tribe,  of  which  it  is  the 
smallest.  This  animal 
is  so  effective  in  exterm- 
inating rats  and  mice, 
-  that  the  farmer  can  weft 
afford  to  let  him  steal 
now  and  then  an  egg  or 

a  chicken,  which  it  will  never  do  so  long  as  any  rats  or 

mice  are  to  be  found  on  the  premises. 

89.  The  fur  of  the  Sable  is  very  valuable.    Great  num- 
bers of  this  animal  are  taken  by  hunters  in  Siberia,  and 
are  a  considerable  article  of  the  Russian  trade.     The  fur 
of  the  Pine  Marten  comes  next  in  value.     Many  other 
furs  are  furnished  by  this  family.    The  fur  of  the  Ermine 
was  formerly  used  in  England  to  line  the  robes  of  judges 
and  magistrates,  and  was,  therefore,  often  referred  to  fig- 
uratively as  emblematical  of  the  purity  which  should  be- 
long to  such  persons. 

90.  The  Skunk  genus,  of  which  there  are  several  spe- 
cies, found  only  hi  America,  belongs  to  this  family.    The 
common  Skunk  is  about  the  size  of  a  cat.    The  offensive 
fluid  which  it  can  throw  upon  any  that  attack  it  is  con- 
tained in  two  sacs  near  the  tail.    Like  the  Woodchuck, 


Fig.  38.— Weasel. 


CARNIVOROUS   QUADRUPEDS.  57 

in  the  Northern  States  it  retires  to  its  burrow  in  the  au- 
tumn to  sleep  through  the  winter. 

91.  The  Otters  form  a  somewhat  aberrant  genus  of 
the  Weasel  family.  They  differ  from  the  other  genera 
in  being  aquatic,  their  prey  being  for  the  most  part  in 
the  water.  Their  paws  are  fitted  for  swimming,  which 
they  do  with  great  celerity.  Their  fur  is  close,  short, 
and  fine,  so  that  it  may  not  interfere  with  their  progress 
in  the  water,  and  they  are  provided  with  a  nictitating 
(winking)  membrane  which  can  be  drawn  over  the  eye 
for  defense,  it  being  transparent  enough  to  allow  the  an- 
imal to  see  through  it.  There  is  considerable  resem- 
blance in  these  animals  to  the  seals  soon  to  be  noticed. 
There  is  one  species  found  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
America,  and  on  the  opposite  or  northeast  coast  of  Asia, 
which  has  this  resemblance  strongly  marked.  Its  tail  is 
short,  and  its  hind  feet  form  very  broad  paddles,  and  are 
situated  far  back  for  convenience  in  swimming. 

Questions. — What  are  included  in  the  second  family  of  the  Carniv- 
ora  ?  What  is  said  of  the  varieties  of  the  Dog  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
influence  of  domestication?  How  are  the  Dog  and  Cat  contrasted? 
How  does  the  difference  between  the  varieties  of  dogs  compare  with 
that  between  the  species  of  some  animals  ?  What  is  said  in  this  con- 
nection of  the  varieties  of  the  human  race  ?  Describe  the  Wolf  and 
its  habits.  What  is  said  of  its  relation  to  the  Dog  ?  What  of  its  ex- 
termination? Of  its  ravages?  What  are  the  characteristics  and 
habits  of  the  Fox  ?  What  is  said  of  the  fox-chase  ?  For  what  is  the 
Arctic  Fox  remarkable  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Jackal  ?  What  are 
included  in  the  Weasel  family  ?  What  is  said  of  their  structure  and 
habits  ?  What  is  said  of  the  common  Weasel  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
furs  that  come  from  this  family  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Skunk  ?  What 
of  the  Otters  ? 

C2 


58  NATURAL    HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CARNIVOROUS    QUADRUPEDS — Concluded. 

92.  THE  family  of  Ursidae,  the  Bear  tribe,  includes  the 
Bears,  Raccoons,  Badgers,  etc.    These  are  said  to  be 
Plantigrade  animals  (planta,  sole,  and  gradior,  I  walk), 
because,  like  man,  they  apply  the  sole  of  the  foot  to  the 
ground  in  walking.     The  families  of  the  Carnivora  al- 
ready noticed  are,  on  the  other  hand,  said  to  be  Digiti- 
grade  (digitus,  finger  or  toe,  and  gradior),  because  they 
walk  on  their  toes ;  the  bone  which  corresponds  to  the 
heel-bone  in  man  really  extending  quite  up  the  leg.    You 
can  see  how  this  is  if  you  compare  the  skeleton  of  the 
camel,  which  is  a  Digitigrade  animal,  with  that  of  man, 
in  Figs.  1  and  3.     To  make  the  comparison  clear,  begin 
at  the  hip  or  shoulder  joint  of  the  camel,  and  go  down  to 
the  feet,  observing  the  corresponding  bones  in  man. 

93.  Although  this  family  is  placed  among  the  Carniv- 
ora, most  of  the  species  live  partly  on  vegetable  food,  and 
some  live  almost  entirely  upon  it.     They  may  be  said  to 
be  nearly,  if  not  quite,  omnivorous  (omnis,  all,  and  voro, 
to  eat).     Most  of  them  are  expert  in  climbing.     They 
conceal  themselves  in  caves,  holes,  and  hollow  trees ;  and^ 
it  is  in  such  places  that  they  spend  the  winter  in  a  state 
of  partial  torpidity.     The  genus  Ursus,  or  Bear,  is  the 
type  of  the  family.    There  are  eight  species :  three  in  Eu- 
rope— one  of  which,  the  Polar  Bear,  is  common  also  in 
America ;  one  in  the  mountains  of  India ;  one  in  Java  ; 
one  in  Thibet,  and  three  in  North  America.     The  body 
and  limbs  of  the  Bear  are  massive,  and  are  covered  with 
shaggy  hair.     Its  five  toes  have  strong  claws,  suited  to 
digging.     In  very  cold  countries  bearskins  are  of  great 
use  in  making  coverlets  and  articles  of  clothing.    Leath- 


CARNIVOROUS    QUADRUPEDS. 


59 


er,  also,  is  made  from  them  for  harnesses.     The  Brown 
Bear  of  Northern  Europe  yields  so  many  benefits  to  the 
people  of  Lapland  that  they  call  it  "  the  dog  of  God." 
94.  The  Grizzly  Bear  of  North  America,  Fig.  39,  is 


Fig.  39.— Grizzly  Bear. 

the  most  fierce  and  powerful  of  the  Bears.  Among  the 
Indians  it  is  regarded  a  great  feat  to  kill  one  of  them, 
and  he  who  does  this  is  permitted  to  wear  a  necklace 
of  its  claws  as  a  decoration.  Although  very  clumsy,  it 
climbs  trees  readily,  which  it  does  to  get  at  the  honey  in 
the  nests  of  wild  bees.  It  lives  on  roots,  berries,  and 
juicy  plants,  and,  when  it  can  do  so,  will  devour  a  pig,  a 
sheep,  or  a  calf. 

95.  The  Polar  Bear,  Fig.  40  (p.  60),  is  entirely  white, 
except  the  claws  and  the  tip  of  the  nose,  which  are  black. 
It  lives  chiefly  upon  seals,  which  it  hunts  both  in  the  wa- 
ter and  on  the  ice.  With  its  stout  claws,  and  its  long 
hair  about  its  feet,  it  runs  rapidly  over  the  smoothest  ice, 
and  even  climbs  up  the  sides  of  icebergs.  Sometimes 
these  bears  float  off  to  sea  on  fields  of  ice,  and  in  this 


00 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  40.— Polar  Bear. 

way  they  have  been  known  to  emigrate  from  Greenland 
to  Iceland,  and  there  find  luxurious  living  in  the  flocks 
and  herds  of  the  inhabitants,  a  change  from  their  custom- 
ary seal  diet  which  was  very  grateful  to  them. 

'96.  The  other  animals  of  this  family  which  I  shall  no- 
tice are  much  smaller,  and  belong  to  genera  more  or  less 

aberrant.  The  Rac- 
coon, Figure  41,  is 
about  the  size  of  a 
Fox.  Like  the  Bear, 
it  has  sharp  claws 
and  climbs  trees.  It 
sleeps  in  its  hole  by 
day,  and  prowls  at 
night  for  its  food, 
which  consists  of 
small  quadrupeds, 
birds,  eggs,  insects, 

Fig.  41.— Raccoon.  1'OOtS,  CtC.     It  IS 


CARNIVOROUS    QUADRUPEDS. 


61 


Fig.  42 Badger. 


dexterous  in  opening  oysters.  It  bites  off  the  hinge,  and 
scrapes  out  the  oyster  with  its  paw. 

97.  The  Ba'dger,  Fig.  42,  is  found  throughout  Europe 

„  and  Asia.     It  has 

often  been  made  the 
subject  of  a  cruel 
sport,  teasing  with 
dogs,  and  hence  the 
common  term  "bad- 
gering." Its  food  is 
various.  It  is  very 
fond  of  honey,  and 
attacks  the  nests  of 
wild  bees,  which  it 
does  with  impuni- 
ty; for  its  skin  is 
so  tough  and  its  hair  is  so  thick  that  the  bees  "  might  as 
well  sting  a  barber's  block."  Its  hair  is  extensively  used 
in  making  brushes,  and  the  skin  is  used  for  holsters  and 
the  coverings  of  traveling  trunks.  There  is  an  American 
Badger  somewhat  like  that  of  the  Old  World. 

98.  The  Wolverine,  or  Glutton,  Fig.  43,  is  a  native  of 

the  Arctic  regions  of 
both  continents.  It 
has  been  called  the 
Quadruped  Vulture, 
because  it  sometimes 
preys  on  the  dead 
bodies  of  animals.  It 
ng.  43.— wolverine.  does  great  damage 

to  the  fur  trade.  When  it  finds  the  hunter's  traps  set 
for  the  martens,  it  takes  the  bait,  which  is  a  bit  of  veni- 
son or  a  partridge's  head,  or,  if  there  be  martens  in  the 
traps,  it  tears  them  in  pieces,  and  buries  them  here  and 
there  in  the  snow.  It  is  said  that  the  Wolverines  do  not 
eat  the  martens,  but  the  cunning  foxes  on  the  watch  read- 
ily scent  them  out  and  devour  them. 


62 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


99.  The  Kinkajou,  Fig.  44,  is  found  in  South  America. 

It  has  been  called 
the  Honey  Bear,  be- 
cause it  is  so  fond  of 
attacking  the  nests 
of  the  wild  bee,  lick- 
ing out  the  honey 
from  the  cells  with 

jtg  Jon      tonUC.       It 


Fig.  44._Kmkajoa. 

is  also  very  expert  with  its  tongue  in  catching  flies  and 
other  insects.  Its  tail  it  uses,  like  the  Spider  Monkey  of 
the  same  country,  in  climbing.  It  is  easily  tamed,  and  is 
as  playful  as  a  cat. 

100.  The  family  Phocidae  (<J>(*>xni  phoke,  a  seal)   are 
Quadrupeds,  and  yet  they  are  fitted  to  live  in  water  as 
well  as  on  the  land.     There  was  an  approach  to  this  in 
the  Otters,  §  91.     Seals  and  other  animals  having  a  sim- 
ilar mixture  of  terrestrial  and  aquatic  habits,  are  often 
termed  amphibious  animals,  from  a/*0e,  amphi,  both  ; 
/3toc,  bios,  life. 

101.  The  limbs  of  the  Seal  are  like  paddles.    The  arm 
and  forearm  of  the  anterior  limbs  are  very  short,  so  that 
the  paw  extends  but  little  from  the  body.     The  paw  is 
made  of  what  corresponds  to  the  finger-bones  in  man, 
covered  with  a  skin  which  stretches  between  the  fingers, 
so  as  to  resemble  the  webbed  feet  of  swimming  birds. 
In  giving  the  backward  stroke  in  swimming  the  fingers 
are  spread  out,  but  in  the  forward  stroke  they  are  brought 
together.     The  hinder  limbs  are  directed  backward,  so 

as  to  look  very  much 
like  a  tail  at  the  end 
of  the  tapering  body, 
as  seen  in  Fig.  45.  In 
swimming,  it  uses  the 
fore  paws  as  paddles, 
and  the  hinder  ones, 
Fig.  45.—  scai.  with  an  up  and  down 


CARNIVOROUS    QUADRUPEDS.  63 

motion,  both  as  a  sculling  and  steering  oar.  On  land  or 
ice  the  movements  of  the  Seal  are  very  awkward,  it  being 
carried  along  by  the  fore  paws,  while  the  hinder  feet  are 
dragged  along.  Its  body  is  covered  with  a  glossy  fur, 
closely  set  to  the  skin,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  its 
swimming,  which  it  performs  with  great  celerity.  The 
nostrils  and  the  ears  have  valves,  which  the  animal  can 
close  when  it  goes  under  water,  where  it  can,  like  the 
Whale,  remain  for  some  length  of  time. 

102.  The  Seal  is  very  useful  to  man.     The  many  uses 
to  which  it  is  appropriated  by  the  Greenlanders  are  thus 
spoken  of  by  Crantz,  a  Danish  traveler :  "  Its  flesh  sup- 
plies th,em  with  their  most  palatable   and  substantial 
food ;   the  fat  furnishes  them  with  oil  for  lamplight, 
chamber  and  kitchen  fire ;  and  whoever  sees  their  hab- 
itations presently  finds  that,  even  if  they  had  a  superflui- 
ty of  wood,  it  would  be  of  no  use — they  can  use  noth- 
ing but  oil  in  them.     They  also  mollify  their  dry  food, 
mostly  fish,  with  oil ;  and,  finally,  they  barter  it  for  all 
kinds  of  necessaries  with  the  factors.    They  can  sew  bet- 
ter with  fibres  of  the  Seal's  sinews  than  with  thread  or 
silk ;  of  the  skins  of  the  entrails  they  make  window-cur- 
tains for  their  tents,  and  shirts ;  part  of  the  bladder  they 
use  as  a  float  to  their  harpoons ;  and  they  make  oil-flasks 
of  the  stomach.    Neither  is  the  blood  wasted,  but  is  boil- 
ed with  other  ingredients  and  eaten  as  soup.     Of  the 
skin  of  the  Seal  they  stand  in  the  greatest  need,  because 
they  must  cover  with  seal-skins  both  the  large  and  small 
boats  in  which  they  travel  and  seek  their  provisions. 
They  must  also  cut  out  of  them  their  thongs  and  straps, 
and  cover  their  tents  with  them,  without  which  they 
could  not  subsist  in  summer.     No  man,  therefore,  can 
pass  for  a  right  Greenlander  who  can  not  catch  Seals. 
This  is  the  ultimate  end  they  aspire  at  in  all  their  device 
and  labor  from  their  childhood  up." 

103.  Seals  exist  in  almost  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
but  they  are  mostly  found  in  the  temperate  and  frozen 


64 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


portions,  especially  the  latter.  There  are  many  species. 
The  common  Seal,  Fig.  45  (p.  62),  is  from  four  to  five  feet 
long,  and  its  weight  is  sometimes  over  200  pounds.  Its 
head  is  rounded,  and  it  has  long  stiff  whiskers.  Dr. 
Kane's  description  of  its  appearance  and  habits  is  very 
graphic.  In  some  positions  it  has  the  appearance  of  a 
dog.  It  has  "  a  countenance  between  the  Dog  and  the 
Ape — an  expression  so  like  humanity  that  it  makes  gun- 
murderers  hesitate."  It  often  rolls  and  wriggles  about 
on  the  ice  in  the  most  grotesque  manner,  looking  some- 
times like  an  immense  snail,  then  like  a  dog,  and  again 
like  a  couching  hunter. 

104.  The  Elephant  Seal,  Fig.  46,  is  the  largest  known 

species.  It  is  from 
twenty  to  thirty  feet 
long,  a  full  grown 
male  yielding  about 
seventy  gallons  of  oil. 
This  Seal  is  found 
in  the  Atlantic,  Pa- 
cific, and  Southern 
Oceans.  It  lives  in 
troops,  migrating  to- 
ward the  tropics  in 

winter,  and  return- 
Fig.  46.— Elephant  Seal.  ing  toward  the  south 
pole  in  summer.  It  has  its  name  on  account  of  the  long 
snout,  which  is  a  little  like  the  proboscis  of  the  Elephant, 
and  more  like  that  of  the  Tapir.  When  enraged,  it  thrusts 
this  forward,  at  the  same  time  snorting  loudly.  Though 
a  formidable-looking  animal,  it  never  attacks  man,  but 
only  makes  a  show  of  its  large  teeth  to  frighten  him.  It 
is  sought  after  for  its  oil,  and  for  its  skin,  which  is  much 
used  in  making  stout  and  thick  harness.  The  Fur  Seal, 
found  in  the  same  quarters  of  the  globe,  has  been  here- 
tofore largely  taken  for  its  skin,  but  it  has  been  much 
thinned  off,  as  the  number  taken  amounted  sometimes  to 
over  a  million  in  a  year. 


CARNIVOROUS    QUADRUPEDS. 


65 


105.  The  Walrus,  Fig.  47,  is  an  aberrant  species.     In 
general  form  and  habits  it  is  like  the  larger  Seals.     Its 
^_.,  .^  chief  peculiarity  is  the 

great  length  of  the  ca- 
nine teeth  of  the  upper 
jaw,  sometimes  reach- 
ing to  two  feet.  These 
tusks  are  of  service  in 
defense,in  progression, 
and  in  gathering  its 
food.  It  resists  with 
them  the  attacks  of 
the  Polar  Bear ;  it  uses 
them  as  hooks  in  clam- 
Fig.  47.-,-wain».  ^  boring  up  rocks  and 
icebergs,  and  it  draws  up  with  them  the  seaweed  which 
is  a  part  of  its  food.  It  is  found  in  the  Arctic  regions  of- 
both  hemispheres,  and  is  sought  after  for  its  oil  and  its 
tusks.  • 

Questions. — What  are  included  in  the  family  of  Ursidse  ?  Why  are 
they  called  Plantigrade  animals  ?™  What  are  Digitigrade  animals  ? 
How  far  are  the  Ursida3  carnivorous  ?  What  is  an  omnivorous  ani- 
mal ?  What  are  the  habits  of  this  family  ?  What  is  the  type-genus 
of  the  family  ?  How  many  species  are  there  of  this  genus,  and  where 
are  they  found  ?  What  is  said  of  their  structure  ?  What  of  their  usef  ul- 
ness  to  man  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Grizzly  Bear  ?  What  of  the  Polar 
Bear?  What  are  some  of  the  aberrant  species  of  the  Ursidas  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Eaccoon?  Of  the  Badger?  Of  the  Wolverine?  Of 
the  Kinkajou  ?  What  are  the  Phocidae  ?  Why  are  they  called  am- 
phibious ?  Describe  the  structure  and  habits  of  Seals.  What  is  said 
of  their  usefulness  to  man  ?  Where  are  they  found  ?  Describe  the 
common  Seal.  What  is  said  of  the  Elephant  Seal?  Of  the  Fur 
Seal  ?  Of  the  Walrus  ? 


66 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

INSECT-EATING,  RODENT,  TOOTHLESS,  AND   MARSUPIAL 
QUADRUPEDS. 

106.  WE  now  come  to  the  second  order  of  Quadru- 
peds, the  Insectivora,  or  insect-eating  Quadrupeds.     Al- 
though, as  we  saw  in  Chapter  III.,  many  of  the  Bat  and 
Monkey  tribes  live  chiefly  on  insects,  it  is  in  this  order 
that  we  find  the  most  complete  adaptation  to  this  kind 
of  food.     The  teeth  of  the  Insectivora  are  not  cutting 
and  tearing,  as  are  those  of  the  Carnivora,  but  they  have 
rounded  points  for  the  purpose  of  crushing  the  hard  cov- 
erings of  insects.   Most  of  them  live  chiefly  under  ground, 
as  the  Mole ;  and  those  which  inhabit  cold  countries  are 
hi  a  state  of  torpor  through  the  winter.     Their  vocation 
seems  to  be  to  keep  within  bounds  the  worm  and  insect 
tribes  that  are  found  in  the  soil,  which  would  otherwise 
be  exceedingly  destructive  to  the  vegetables  on  which 
man  so  much  depends  for  food. 

107.  Of  this  order  there  are  four  families:  1.  Moles, 
which  pass  their  whole  lives  in  burrows.     2.  Shrews,  a 
sort  of  carnivorous  mice,  which  are  very  common  through- 
out Europe,  but  of  which  only  a  few  species  are  found 
in  America.     3.  The  Hedgehogs,  found  in  Europe,  Asia, 

4.  The  Banxrings,  which  inhabit  the  larger 
islands  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago. 

108.  The  common 
European  Mole,  Fig. 
48,  lives  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Mole 
of  this  country,  al- 
Fig.  48.— Mole.  though  it  is  a  differ- 


and  Africa. 


INSECT-EATING    QUADRUPEDS.  67 

ent  species.  The  eyes  of  the  Mole  are  very  small,  as  it 
has  but  little  use  for  vision ;  but  its  hearing  and  smell 
are  very  acute.  Its  fur  is  fine  and  soft,  and  it  will  not 
retain  a  particle  of  dirt,  although  continually  in  contact 
with  it.  Its  fore  paws,  mounted  with  strong  claws,  are 
powerful  instruments  for  digging.  In  Fig.  49  you  have 
the  bones  of  one  of  these  paws, 
which  are  very  large,  and  are 
worked  by  strong  muscles.  The 
head  is  constructed  for  digging 
also,  the  frame  of  the  nose  be- 
ing wholly  bone,  instead  of  part 

Fig.49._ForepawoftheMole.       gr{^    ^    ^    mogt    other    ani. 

mals.  The  hinder  part  of  the  body  has  not  the  great 
strength  of  the  fore  part,  -for  the  hind  feet  are  not  em- 
ployed in  digging. 

109.  The  plan  of  a  mole-hill  is  very  curious.    It  has,  as 
you  see  in  the  plan  in  Fig.  50,  two  circular  galleries,  one 

above  the  other,  con- 
nected  together  by  five 
passages.  In  the  very 
centre  of  the  mound, 
and  on  a  level  with  the 
ground  around  it.  is  a 

Fig.  50.— Mole-hill.  °.         , 

circular   apartment 

where  the  Mole  sleeps.  This  is  connected  by  three  pas- 
sages with  the  upper  gallery,  and  not  at  all  with  the  lower 
one.  Then  there  are  passages  running  out  from  the  lower 
gallery,  and  into  one  of  these  opens  a  passage  from  the 
circular  chamber.  Just  this  plan  has  been  instinctively 
adopted  ever  since  the  first  mole  was  created.  The  food 
of  the  Mole  is  chiefly  worms  and  insects,  which  it  gath- 
ers by  burrowing.  The  good  which  the  Mole  does  to 
the  farmer  in  this  way  is  probably  much  greater  than 
any  harm  which  his  burrowing  may  sometimes  occasion. 

110.  The  Shrew  Mouse,  Fig.  51  (p.  68),  is  so  called  be- 
cause it  is  so  much  like  a  Mouse,  but  it  is  readily  distin- 


68 


NA-fURAL   HISTORY. 


guished  from  it  by 
its  long  snout,  which 
it  uses  in  grubbing 
the  earth  in  search 
of  worms  and  in- 
sects. The  Water 
Shrew  dives  and 
Fig.  5i.-shrew  Mouse.  swims  with  great  ce- 

lerity, and  lives  on  the  grubs  of  aquatic  insects,  which  it 
digs  out  of  the  mud  with  its  snout. 

111.  The  Hedgehog,  Fig.  52,  is  the  only  animal  in  En- 

gland that  has  its 
skin  armed  with 
spikes.  These  are 
its  means  of  defense. 
When  attacked,  it 
rolls  itself  up,  and 
such  is  the  arrange- 
ment of  these  spikes 

that  the  tightening  of  the  skin  makes  them  all  stand  out. 
A  dog  or  a  fox  will  not  touch  it  then.  Its  food  is  in- 
sects, snails,  frogs,  snakes,  roots,  etc.  Dr.  Buckland  put 
a  hedgehog  in  a  box  with  a  snake.  It  gave  the  snake 
several  quick  bites  in  succession,  rolling  itself  up  after 
each  bite.  When  the  snake  was  sufficiently  disabled, 
the  hedgehog  ate  it  leisurely  as  one  would  eat  a  radish, 
beginning  at  the  tail.  In  winter  this  animal  lies  torpid 
in  a  hole  lined  with  grass  and  moss,  and  if  discovered 
looks  like  a  ball  of  leaves,  these  having  become  fastened 
to  its  spikes  as  it  rolled  itself  among  them. 

112.  The  Banxrings  differ  from  the  other  families  of 
this  order  in  being  arboreal  in  their  habits,  ascending 
trees  with  the  agility  of  Squirrels,  which  animals  they  re- 
semble in  general  appearance,  but  are  easily  distinguish- 
ed from  them  by  their  sharp  muzzles. 

113.  The  order  Rodentia,  or  Gnawing  Quadrupeds,  has 
eight  families:  1.  Squirrels.     2.  Marmots.     3.  Rats  and 


KODENT   QUADRUPEDS.  69 

Mice.  4.  Beavers.  5.  Porcupines.  6.  Guinea  Pigs.  7. 
Chinchillas.  8.  Hares.  This  order  contains  about  three 
hundred  species,  and  is  the  most  generally  distributed  of 
all  the  orders  of  terrestrial  Mammals.  Its  species  are 
found  in  all  quarters  of  the  world,  a  few  of  them  even  in 
Australia.  The  furs  of  some  of  them  are  very  valuable, 
as  the  Beavers,  the  Chinchillas,  and  the  Gray  Squirrels. 
114.  The  grand  peculiarity  of  this  order  is  in  their 
gnawing  teeth.  These  are  in  front,  two  in  each  jaw,  and 
they  are  peculiarly  constructed.  The  front  covering  of 
the  tooth  is  enamel,  and  its  rear  portion,  that  is,  the  body 
of  the  tooth,  is  ivory,  which  is  by  no  means  as  hard  as 
enamel.  Observe  the  effect  of  this  arrangement.  As 
the  upper  and  lower  teeth  are  brought  together  in  gnaw- 
ing, the  enamel  does  not  wear  away  as  fast  as  the  ivory, 
because  it  is  harder.  The  thin  enamel,  therefore,  always 
presents  a  sharp  chiseling  edge  above  the  level  of  the 
ivory.  No  other  class  of  animals  has  this  peculiarity. 
These  teeth  are  used  for  different  purposes,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, by  Squirrels  in  opening  the  shells  of  nuts,  and  by 
Rats  in  making  holes  in  wood.  The  teeth  of  other  Mam- 
malia have  a  limit  to  their  growth,  but  not  so  with  these 
front  teeth  of  the  Rodents.  These  grow  continually,  but 
are  kept  always  of  the  same  length  by  the  wear  of  the 
gnawing  operation.  If,  therefore,  one  of  them  be  lost, 
the  one  opposite  will  attain  a  great  length.  In  Fig.  53 
you  see  the  lower  jaw  of  a  rabbit  in 
which  the  two  teeth  are  very  long 
because  the  upper  teeth  were  lost. 
A  Rodent  in  such  a  plight  is  essen- 
tially disabled,  and  may  die  of  starv- 

Fig.  53.— Overgrown  Teeth    ation. 

115.  The  other  teeth  in  the  Ro- 
dents are  situated  far  back,  as  seen  in  Fig.  54  (p.  70). 
These  back  teeth  are  of  different  kinds  in  the  different 
families,  according  to  the  nature  of  their  food.  Thus  in 
the  Squirrels,  which  live  on  nuts,  these  teeth  are  rounded, 


Fig.  54. — Skull  ol  Kixieut 
Animal. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 

being  needed  only  for  crushing ;  in 
the  Rat  they  are  raised  into  points, 
he  being  carnivorous ;  while  in  the 
herbivorous  Rodents  they  are  real 
grinders,  as  represented  in  Fig.  54. 
116.  The  bushiness  of  the  tail  is 
the  peculiar  characteristic  of  the 
Squirrel  family.  This,  when  spread 
out,  is  of  some  assistance  in  the  leap- 
ing of  these  arboreal  animals,  both  guiding  and  buoying 
them  up.  In  the  Flying  Squirrel,  Fig.  55,  there  is  an  ar- 
rangement similar  to 
that  of  the  Flying 
Lemur,  §  57. 

117.  The  Ameri- 
can Marmot,  or 
Woodchuck,  as  it  is 
commonly  called,  is 
about  the  size  of  a 
rabbit.  It  has  an 
underground  habi- 
tation, divided  into 
apartments,  and 

Fig.  55.-Flying  Squirrel.  Jive8   on   clover   and 

esculent  vegetables.  Like  some  of  the  Monkeys  (§  52), 
it  has  cheek  pouches,  in  which  it  carries  stores  of  food  to 
its  burrow. 

118.  The  Mouse  and  Rat  family  is  the  most  numerous 
of  all  the  families  of  the  Mammalia,  and  contains  the 
smallest  animals.  Of  the  common  Mouse,  Cuvier  says, 
"  it  is  known  in  all  times  and  in  all  places."  Of  the  Rats 
there  are  two  principal  species,  the  Black  Rat,  and  the 
Brown  or  Brownish-gray.  The  Black  Rat  is  called  the 
old  English  Rat,  which  was  introduced  into  England  from 
France  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century.  This  is  now 
nearly  exterminated  by  the  Brown  Rat,  which  is  a  stron- 
ger animal.  This  latter  Rat  was  introduced  into  this 


RODENT    QUADRUPEDS. 


Fig.  56.— Egyptian  Jerboa. 


country  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  in  the  foreign 
ships. 

119.  The  Jerboas  are  singular  animals,  making  an  aber- 
rant genus  of  this  family.     They  have  long  tails  with 

tufted  ends,  and  long 
hind  legs,  which  en- 
able them  to  make 
enormous  leaps.  The 
Egyptian  Jerboa, 
Fig.  56,  is  about  the 
size  of  a  large  rat. 

120.  Of  the  Bea- 
ver family,  the  com- 
mon Beaver,  Fig.  57, 
so  well  known  in  Can- 
ada and  the  northern 
part  of  the  United 
States,  is  the  type 
species.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  all  the 
other  Rodents  by  its 
flat  and  scaly  tail. 
V\  Its  hind  feet  are 
\  webbed,  and  with 
these  and  its  tail  it  is 
expert  in  swimming. 
Its  incisor  teeth  are 
large  and  uncom- 
monly hard,  and  with 
Fig.  57.— Beaver.  them  it  can  divide  a 

common  walking-stick  at  a  bite  with  as  clean  a  cut  as 
that  of  a  hatchet.  Like  the  Seal  (§  101),  it  can  close  its 
ears  and  nostrils  when  it  dives  into  the  water.  Beavers 
are  very  celebrated  for  the  skill  with  which  they  build 
their  dams  and  habitations,  which  they  always  do  in 
companies. 

121.  The  common  Porcupine,  Fig.  58  (p.  72),  is  found 


/;/ 


NATUKAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  58. — Porcupine. 

in  Africa,  India,  Persia,  Tartary,  and  in  some  parts  of  Eu- 
rope. It  is  nearly  the  largest  of  the  Rodents.  The  spikes 
or  quills  with  which  it  is  covered  constitute,  like  those  of 
the  Hedgehog,  its  means  of  defense.  If  it  can  not  escape, 
it  stands  still,  with  its  quills  all  bristling,  or  even  runs 
back  against  its  adversary.  The  fact  that  any  quills  that 
are  a  little  loose  fall  off,  or  remain  sticking  to  an  adver- 
sary, has  given  rise  to  the  mistake  that  the  animal  has  the 
power  of  shooting  them  from  its  body. 

122.  Of  the  Guinea-pig  family,  the  Capybara,  Fig.  59, 

is  the  largest  of  all 
the  Rodents.  It  is 
a  native  of  South 
America,  where  its 
flesh  is  much  prized. 
It  is  a  favorite  prey 
of  the  Jaguar.  Its 
shape,  and  its  thin 
and  straight  hair, 
make  it  look  quite  like  a  pig. 

123.  The  Hares  differ  from  the  other  Rodents  in  hav- 
ing more  than  four  front  sharp  teeth.     There  are  about 
thirty  species.     The  Hare,  which  in  England  furnishes 


Fig.  59.— Capybara. 


TOOTHLESS    QUADRUPEDS.  73 

such  rare  sport  to  the  hunters,  is  represented  in  Fig.  60. 


Fig.  60 — Hare. 

The  Rabbit,  which  is  every  where  domesticated,  is  small- 
er than  the  Hare,  but  is  like  it  in  form.  It  lives  in  a  bur- 
row, while  the  Hare  lives  in  a  sort  of  nest  which  it  con- 
structs from  grass. 

124.  We  now  pass  to  the  Edentata  or  toothless  Quad- 
rupeds.    This  term  applies  only  to  a  part  of  the  order, 
the  Ant-eaters  and  the  Pangolins.     The  Sloth  and  the 
Armadilloes  have  back  teeth,  but  they  are  imperfect. 

125.  That  singular  animal,  the  Crested  Ant-eater,  Fig. 
61  (p.  74),  is  found  in  Guiana,  Brazil,  and  Paraguay.     It 
is  nearly  four  feet  long.     It  lives  both  on  common  ants 
and  the  termites  or  white  ants.     "With  its  strong  claws 
it  tears  open  their  habitations,  and  then  thrusts  in  its 
long  tongue.     This,  being  covered  with  a  gummy  saliva, 
has,  when  withdrawn,  a  multitude  of  ants  adhering  to  it, 
which  the  animal  swallows. 

126.  The  Pangolins,  or  Manidae  (plural  of  Manis),  are 
ant-eaters,  and  take  the  ants  in  the  same  way  that  the 
Crested  Ant-eater  does.    They  are  remarkable  for  being 
encased  in  an  armor  of  horny  scales.    When  attacked, 
they  roll  themselves  up,  and  raise  their  sharp-edged  scales 

D 


74 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  61.-— Crested  Aiit-eater. 

as  the  Hedgehog  does  his  spines.     The  Long-tailed  Ma- 
nis,  Fig.  62,  is  a  native  of  Africa. 


Fig.  62.— Long-tailed  Manis. 

127.  The  Armadilloes  are  found  only  in  South  Ameri- 
ca. The  armor  which  covers  them  is  different  from  that 
of  the  Pangolins.  It  is  a  sort  of  plate-armor.  One  spe- 
cies, the  Six-banded,  is  represented  in  Fig.  63  (p.  75). 
The  natives  consider  these  animals  a  great  delicacy  when 


TOOTHLESS    QUADRUPEDS. 


iigSiL™,, 


Fig.  63.— Six-banded  Armadillo. 

roasted  in  their  shells.  The  Armadilloes  live  on  carrion, 
insects,  and  fruit.  They  are  all  small,  except  one  species, 
which  is  called  the  Gigantic  Armadillo,  and  weighs  a 
hundred  pounds  or  more. 

128.  The  Sloth,  Fig.  64,  differs  from  all  other  arboreal 


Fig.  64.— Sloth. 

Quadrupeds  in  its  manner  of  climbing.  It  always  has  its 
back  downward,  as  seen  in  the  figure.  It  has  been  com- 
mon to  consider  this  animal  as  imperfectly  constructed, 


76  NATUBAL   HISTOEY. 

and  even  Cuvier  speaks  of  the  "  inconveniency  of  its  or- 
ganization," and  says  of  it  that  "  nature  seems  to  have 
amused  herself  in  producing  something  grotesque  and 
imperfect."  But  there  is  perfect  adaptation  here,  as  in 
every  other  animal,  of  the  organization  to  the  habits.  It 
is  constructed  to  live  just  in  the  way  that  it  does,  and 
moves  about  in  the  trees  with  great  facility.  It  has  been 
known  to  go  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  a  high  tree 
in  a  minute's  tune.  With  its  strong  curved  claws  it 
sleeps  hanging  from  the  branches  of  a  tree  as  easily  as  a 
bird  sleeps  on  its  perch.  The  three  species  of  Sloths  are 
found  only  in  the  forests  of  the  tropical  portion  of  South 
America.  They  live  on  the  leaves  of  trees. 

129.  The  order  of  Marsupials  is  named  from  a  pouch 
or  bag  (Latin,  marsupium)  which  the  females  have  for 
carrying  their  young  for  some  time  after  birth.     The 
young  are  born  in  an  immature  helpless  state,  and  a  sort 
of  nest  is  thus  provided  for  them  in  the  body  of  the  moth- 
er.    Even  after  they  have  become  able  to  leave  it,  they 
flee  to  it  whenever  they  are  alarmed.     There  are  about 
eighty  species.     All  of  these  animals  are  found  only  in 
Australia  and  the  neighboring  islands,  except  the  Opos- 
sums, which  are  found  on  the  western  continent,  especial- 
ly in  South  America. 

130.  The  Great  Kangaroo,  Fig.  65  (p.  77),  a  native  of 
Australia,  has  very  long  and  powerful  hind  legs,  and  can 
make  leaps  of  fifteen  feet.     Its  fore  feet  are  short  and 
small,  and  are  used  more  as  hands  than  as  feet.     Its 
length  is  about  five  feet,  and  its  tail  is  three  feet  long. 
There  are  many  different  species  of  Kangaroos,  all  having 
a  general  resemblance  to  this. 

131.  The  Opossums  are  peculiar  to  America.     There 
are  about  twenty  species.     They  are  arboreal  in  their 
habits,  and  they  are  assisted  in  their  climbing,  like  some 
of  the  Monkey  tribe,  by  their  tails,  which  are  long  and 
scaly.     In  one  other  respect  they  are  still  more  allied  to 
the  Monkeys.    The  inner  toe  of  the  hinder  foot  is  some- 


MARSUPIAL    QUADRUPEDS. 


Fig.  65.— Great  Kangaroo. 

what  like  a  thumb,  as  it  can  be  brought  in  opposition  to 
the  other  toes  for  grasping.  They  can  therefore  be  call- 
ed, like  the  monkeys,  Pedimana,  or  foot-handed  animals. 
The  pouch  in  the  abdomen  for  their  young,  however, 

places  them  decided- 
ly among  the  Marsu- 
pials. 

132.  The  Virginia 
Opossum,  Figure  66, 
found  in  many  of  the 
Southern  States  of 
this  country,  is  one 
of  the  largest  of  the 
genus,  being  about 
the  size  of  a  cat.  It 
is  nocturnal  and  ar- 
66.— Virginia  Opossum.  boreal.  It  remains  in 


78  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  daytime  inert  in  branches  and  hollows  of  trees,  but 
prowls  at  night  in  search  of  its  food,  which  consists  of 
insects,  birds,  eggs,  fruits,  etc.  It  makes  great  use  of  its 
tail  in  climbing,  being  able  to  swing  by  it  from  one  branch 
to  another.  When  attacked  it  feigns  death,  and  so  w^ell 
that  even  dogs  are  deceived.  This  is  the  origin  of  the 
common  phrase,,"  playing  'possum." 

133.  There  are  two  very  singular  animals  in  Australia, 
about  the  classification  of  which  there  has  been  some  dif- 
ference of  opinion.  By  some  they  have  been  placed  in 
this  order,  on  account  of  some  resemblance  in  the  skele- 
ton, although  they  have  not  any  marsupium.  The  first 
is  the  Duck-billed  Platypus,  Fig.  67.  This  singular  ani- 


Fig.  67.—  Duck-billed  Platypus. 

mal  has  a  body  like  that  of  an  Otter,  and  a  bill  like  that 
of  a  Duck.  It  was  first  made  known  to  British  natural- 
ists by  a  stuffed  specimen,  and  it  was  at  once  suspected 
that  the  bill  of  some  Australian  bird  had  been  ingeniously 
fastened  to  the  head  of  a  quadruped.  But  it  was  found 
to  be  no  deception,  and  this  animal  presents  the  strongest 
example  that  we  have  of  an  approach  in  the  Mammal 
tribe  to  that  of  birds.  It  uses  its  bill  precisely  as  the 
Duck  does,  searching  for  insects,  small  shell-fish,  etc.,  by 
plunging  it  here  and  there  in  the  mud.  There  is  a  curi- 
ous provision  in  the  young  to  prevent  the  bill  from  inter- 
fering with  the  operation  of  suckling.  It  is  very  soft, 


MARSUPIAL    QUADRUPEDS.  79 

and  does  not  become  hard  till  it  is  time  for  the  animal  to 
cease  to  suckle.  The  fore  feet  are  formed  for  digging, 
and  the  animal  excavates  a  burrow,  sometimes  even  fifty 
feet  in  length,  in  the  bank  of  the  stream,  where  it  lives. 
Both  the  fore  and  the  hind  feet  are  fitted  for  swimming 
by  being  webbed.  The  web  on  its  fore  feet  extends  over 
its  claws,  but  it  has  the  power  of  folding  it  back  when  it 
wishes  to  dig. 

134.  The  other  animal  is  the  Echidna,  or  Porcupine 
Ant-eater.  It  is  about  the  size  and  form  of  a  hedgehog, 
but  its  spines  are  stouter.  It  burrows  with  great  ra- 
pidity. When  attacked  by  dogs,  it  quickly,  by  digging, 
sinks  itself  in  earth  or  sand,  so  that  they  can  see  nothing 
but  its  bristling  back,  and  this  they  are  not  disposed  to 
touch. 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  the  structure  and  habits  of  the  Insect- 
ivora  ?  What  are  the  families  of  this  order  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
structure  and  habits  of  the  common  Mole?  Describe  the  arrange- 
ment of  a  mole-hill.  What  is  said  of  the  Shrew  Mouse  ?  What  of 
the  Hedgehog  ?  Of  the  Banxrings  ?  What  are  the  families  of  the 
order  Kodentia?  Describe  their  front  teeth.  What  is  said  of  their 
back  teeth  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Squirrel  family  ?  What  of  the 
American  Marmot  ?  Of  the  Rats  and  Mice  ?  Of  the  Jerboas  ?  De- 
scribe the  structure  and  habits  of  the  Beaver  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Porcupine  ?  Of  the  Guinea-pig  family  ?  Of  the  Hares  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  Edentata  ?  What  of  the  Crested  Ant-eater  ?  Of  the  Pan- 
golins ?  Of  the  Armadilloes  ?  Of  the  Sloth  ?  From  what  do  the 
Marsupials  get  their  name  ?  Where  are  they  found  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  Great  Kangaroo  ?  How  many  species  are  there  of  the  Opos- 
sums ?  Where  are  they  found  ?  What  are  their  habits  ?  How  are 
they  allied  to  the.  Monkey  tribe  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Virginia  Opos- 
sum ?  What  are  the  structure  and  habits  of  the  Duck-billed  Platy- 
pus ?  What  is  said  of  the  Echidna  ?  Where  are  these  two  animals 
found? 


80 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


CHAPTER 

THICK-SKINNED   QUADRUPEDS. 

135.  WE  now  come  to  the  second  division  of  Quadru- 
peds, the  Ungulata  or  hoofed  quadrupeds.    Of  this  there 
are  two  orders :  1.  The  Pachydermata,  or  thick-skinned. 
2.  The  Ruminantia,  ruminating,  or  cud-chewing.     The 
Pachydermata  are  variously  classified  by  different  natu- 
ralists.    I  make  six  families:  1.  The  Elephants.     2.  The 
Tapirs.    3.  The  Pig  Family.    4.  The  Rhinoceros  Family. 
5.  The  Hippopotamus  Family.     6.  The  Horse  Family. 

136.  Of  the  Elephants  there  are  only  two  species,  the 
Asiatic  and  the  African,  the  latter  of  which  you  see  in 
Fig.  68.    The  Elephant  has  several  hoofs  arranged  in  a 


Fig.  68.— The  Elephant. 

circular  manner  around  the  bottom  of  the  foot.     His 
trunk  or  proboscis  (from  which  this  family  is  sometimes 


THICK-SKINNED    QUADRUPEDS.  81 

called  Proboscidea)  is  a  wonderful  organ.'  It  has  in  it 
40,000  muscles  interlaced  together.  These  give  it  great 
flexibility,  and  make  it  the  hand  of  the  elephant.  On 
the  end  of  this  hand  is  a  small  finger-like  projection, 
which  is  a  feeler,  and  is  also  used  in  picking  up  small 
objects.  The  Elephant  gathers  his  food  with  his  trunk, 
and  puts  it  into  his  mouth.  He  gets  his  drink  also  with 
his  trunk  in  this  way — he  draws  it  up  into  the  two  nos- 
trils of  the  trunk,  it  being  prevented  from  going  back 
into  the  throat  by  a  valve.  When  he  drinks  he  turns 
the  end  of  the  trunk  into  his  mouth,  and  pours  the  water 
in  from  it.  He  sometimes  gives  himself  a  shower-bath 
by  throwing  water  from  his  trunk  over  his  body.  It  is 
through  the  trunk  that  the  Elephant  sends  forth  his 
trumpet-like  voice.  This  organ  is  not  only  a  hand,  a 
forcing  and  suction  pump,  and  a  trumpet,  but  it  is  also 
the  animal's  nose. 

137.  The  neck  of  the  Elephant  is  so  short  that  he  could 
not  possibly  reach  his  food  or  drink  without  his  trunk. 
His  food  is  chiefly  grass,  the  leaves  of  trees,  and  roots. 
These  last  he  loosens  with  his  tusks,  using  them  as  we 
use  a  crowbar,  and  then  he  pulls  them  up  with  his  trunk. 

138.  Elephants  congregate  in  large  herds,  sometimes 
numbering  hundreds,  or  even  thousands;  and  no  sight 
can  be  more  grand  than  such  a  herd  in  the  midst  of  the 
magnificent  scenery  and  rich  verdure  of  an  African  land- 
scape.   The  Elephant  of  India  is  more  sagacious  than  that 
of  Africa,  and  is  much  used  in  traveling,  and  in  hunting 
tigers,  as  described  in  §  72.     The  African  Elephant  is  not 
at  present  tamed  by  man,  and  is  hunted  merely  for  the 
sake  of  his  tusks,  from  which  very  fine  ivory  is  obtained. 
The  trade  in  tusks,  both  in  Asia  and  Africa,  is  immense. 
It  requires  annually  many  thousands  of  elephants  to  fur- 
nish a  supply  of  ivory  to  England  alone. 

139.  Although  the  Elephant  is  the  largest  of  all  the 
terrestrial  Mammalia,  there  are  remains  of  extinct  ani- 
mals which  reached  a  much  larger  size.    This  is  the  case 

D  2 


82  ,  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

with  the  Mastodon  Giganteus,  whose  bones  have  been 
found  alone  in  America. 

140.  The  Tapir  is  in  some  respects  like  the  Hog.  It 
has  a  prolonged  snout,  which  allies  it,  on  the  other  hand, 
to  the  Elephant.  With  this  it  grasps  fruit  and  herbage, 
putting  it  into  its  mouth.  The  South  American  Tapir 
is  from  five  to  six  feet  high.  The  Malay  Tapir,  Fig.  69, 


Fig.  69 — The  Tapir. 

is  larger.     It  has  its  loins  and  hind  quarters  of  a  grayish 
white  color;  giving  it  a  singular  appearance. 

141.  Of  the  Pig  Family  I  need  say  but  little.  The 
two  orifices  of  the  snout  are  like  those  in  the  trunk  of 
the  Elephant.  The  proverbial  uncleanliness  of  the  com- 
mon Hog  is  owing  in  fact  to  the  circumstances  in  which 
man  places  it,  and  no  animal  seems  to  like  clean  straw 
better.  The  Wild  Hog  or  boar,  the  original  of  the  do- 
mestic hog,  is  still  found  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  es- 
pecially in  the  German  forests,  and  its  chase  is  one  of 
the  sports  of  hunters.  One  of  this  family,  the  Baby- 
roussa,  or  hog-deer,  Fig.  70  (p.  83),  has  four  tusks,  two 
of  which  do  not  pass  out  between  the  lips,  but  through 
an  opening  in  the  skin.  It  is  a  native  of  Java  and  the 
Moluccas. 


THICK-SKINNED    QUADRUPEDS. 


83 


Fig.  TO The  Babyrousea. 

142.  There  are  seven  species  of  the  Rhinoceros.  These 
are  ungainly  animals  with  short  legs,  approaching  in  size 
the  Elephants.  They  are  distinguished  chiefly  by  their 
horns,  which  are  in  texture  something  like  whalebone. 
Some  species  have  two  horns.  Those  that  have  one,  as 
in  Fig.  71,  are  called  unicorns.  These  animals  live  an 


Fig.  71.— The  Rhinoceros. 

indolent  life  on  the  marshy  borders  of  lakes  and  rivers, 
r.nd  are  very  fond  of  wallowing  in  mud.  They  are  found 
in  Asia  and  Africa. 


84  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

143.  There  is  but  one  known  species  of  the  Hippopot- 
amus (tTTTroc,  hippos,  horse;  Trora/uoe,  potamos,  river),  or 
river-horse,  an  inhabitant  of  Africa.     It  passes  a  large 
portion  of  its  time  in  the  water,  especially  in  the  day- 
time, leaving  it  at  night  in  search  of  its  food,  which  is 
the  herbage  growing  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes. 
Its  hide  is  of  great  thickness,  even  to  two  inches,  on  its 
back  and  sides,  and  is  made  into  shields,  whips,  and 
walking-sticks.     This  animal  is  supposed  by  some  to  be 
the  Behemoth,  of  the  Bible. 

144.  There  are  certain  birds,  called  Rhinoceros  Birds, 
which  are  always  in  attendance  on  the  hippopotamus 
and  the  rhinoceros.     They  live  on  the  ticks  and  other 
parasites  which  swarm  upon  these  animals.     It  is  said 
that  these  birds  are  the  best  friends  which  those  huge 
creatures  have,  for  they  rouse  them  from  their  sleep 
when  they  see  an  enemy  approach. 

145.  The  Horse  Family  includes  the  Horse,  the  Ass, 
the  Zebras,  etc.     The  hoof  in  this  family  is  one  solid 
piace,  and  so  the  family  is  sometimes  called  solidungula. 

146.  The  first  mention  made  of  the  Horse  in  the  Bible 
is  in  connection  with  the  sale  of  corn  in  Egypt  by  Joseph, 
Genesis,  xlvii.,  17.     What  is  the  original  country  of  the 
horse  is  not  known.    The  herds  running  wild  in  Tartary, 
Carpenter  says,  are  undoubtedly  descendants  of  horses 
that  have  been  domesticated,  for  their  habits  are  the 
same  with  those  of  the  herds  in  the  pampas  of  South 
America,  and  these  are  known  to  have  descended  from 
horses  introduced  by  the  Spaniards.     The  herd  has  al- 
ways a  leader  which  is  a  male,  and  when  attacked  they 
put  the  colts  and  the  females  in  the  rear,  and  make  re- 
sistance by  kicking  with  their  hind  feet.     The  natives 
catch  these  wild  horses  with  the  lasso,  a  noose  of  leather, 
which  they  throw  with  great  skill,  and  they  very  readily 
tame  them.     There  are  herds  of  wild  oxen  as  well  as 
horses  in  the  pampas  of  South  America,  and  there  is  ac- 
cordingly an  immense  trade  in  the  hides  of  both. 


THICK-SKINNED    QUADRUPEDS.  85 

147.  The  finest  horses  in  the  world  are  found  in  Ara- 
bia, and  nowhere  is  this  animal  more  highly  prized.    The 
Arab  treats  his  horse  as  one  of  the  family,  permitting 
him  to  live  in  the  same  tent  with  him,  to  feed  from  his 
hand,  and  even  to  sleep  among  his  children.    The  mutual 
attachment  between  the  horse  and  his  master  is  there- 
fore often  of  the  strongest  character,  and  the  most  ex- 
travagant offers  will  sometimes  fail  to  induce  an  Arab  to 
part  with  his  horse,  even  when  pinching  poverty  makes 
these  offers  very  tempting  to  him. 

148.  The  Ass  was  domesticated  probably  before  the 
Horse.     It  was,  and  is  now,  in  many  parts  of  the  East, 
the  beast  usually  ridden  in  civil  life,  the  Horse  being 
especially  devoted  to  war.     The  care  bestowed  upon  it 
there  makes  it  really  an  elegant  and  spirited  animal. 
The  pustom  of  having  persons  of  distinction  ride  on  white 
asses  is  of  great  antiquity,  as  appears  from  Judges  v.,  10, 
"  Speak,  ye  that  ride  on  white  asses."     Some  asses  are 
fleeter  than  the  Horse,  as  the  Dzigguetai,  Fig.  72,  which 
inhabits  the  greater  part  of  Central  Asia. 


Fig.  72.— The  Dzigguetai. 


149.  The  Zebras,  Fig.  73  (p.  86),  found  in  Southern 
Africa,  live,  like  the  horse,  in  troops,  and,  with  their  dis- 


86 


NATURAL    HISTOilY. 


Fig.  73.— The  Zebra, 

tinct  and  regular  stripes,  make  a  brilliant  appearance  as 
they  flee  together  before  the  hunter.  The  Quagga  of 
the  same  country  is  similar,  but  from  the  indistinctness 
of  its  stripes  it  is  a  less  beautiful  animal.  Neither  of 
these  animals  can  be  profitably  used  like  the  Horse  and 
Ass,  because  they  are  so  wild  and  vicious. 

Questions. — What  are  the  orders  of  the  Ungulata?  What  are  the 
families  of  the  Pachydermata  ?  How  many  species  are  there  of  the 
Elephant,  and  where  are  they  found  ?  What  is  the  arrangement  of 
the  Elephant's  foot  ?  What  are  the  various  offices  of  his  proboscis  ? 
What  is  his  food,  and  how  does  he  obtain  it  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
herds  of  elephants  ?  How  are  Elephants  valuable  to  man  ?  Which 
species  is  most  so  ?  What  is  said  of  large  extinct  animals  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Tapirs  ?  What  of  the  Pig  Family  ?  What  of  the 
Babyroussa?  Of  the  Rhinoceros?  Of  the  Hippopotamus  ?  Of  the 
Rhinoceros  Birds  ?  What  does  the  Horse  Family  include  ?  What 
is  the  first  that  we  know  of  the  Horse?  What  is  said  of  the  herds 
of  wild  horses?  What  of  the  Arabian  Horse?  What  of  the  Ass? 
What  species  of  the  Ass  is  fleeter  than  the  Horse  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  Zebra  ? 


RUMINANT    QUADRUPEDS.  87 


CHAPTER  IX. 

RUMINANT   QUADRUPEDS. 

150.  OF  the  Ruminantia,  or  cud-chewing  quadrupeds, 
there  are  eight  families:  1.  Bovidae,  oxen,  buffaloes,  etc. 
2.  Ovidae,  sheep.     3.  Capridae,  goats.     4.  Cervidae,  the 
deer  tribe.     5.  Moschidae,  the  musk-deer  tribe.     6.  An- 
telopidae,  antelopes.     7.    Camelidaa,  camels.     8.    Caine- 
lopardae,  giraffes,  or  camelopards. 

151.  No  animals  are  so  useful  to  man  as  those  of  this 
order.     Almost  all  the  animal  flesh  which  he  consumes 
comes  from  the  Ruminants.     Some  of  them  are  his  beasts 
of  burden,  and  some  supply  him  with  various  articles  of 
necessity  and  convenience,  such  as  milk,  tallow,  hides, 
horns,  etc.     Being  thus  necessary  to  man,  they  are  dis- 
tributed over  nearly  all  parts  of  the  globe.     Some  of 
them,  as  the  Reindeer  of  Lapland,  and  the  Camel  of 
Arabia  and  Northern  Africa,  are  confined  mostly  to  cer- 
tain regions ;  while  others,  as  the  Ox,  the  Sheep,  and  the 
Goat,  go  every  where  with  man,  except  in  regions  which 
are  so  cold  as  not  to  afford  them  the  requisite  food  in 
pasturage. 

152.  The  Ruminants  make  a  very  well  defined  order, 
all  the   families  agreeing  in  their  prominent  common 
characteristics,  and  none  of  them  being  to  any  extent 
aberrant.     Of  all  the  herbivorous  animals  these  are  the 
most  entirely  confined  to  vegetable  food.     Of  the  Ro- 
dents, though  mostly  herbivorous,  there  are  many  that 
eat  some  animal  food ;  most  of  the  Edentata  live  on  in- 
sects, and  some  devour  flesh ;  and  several  species  even 
of  the  Pachydermata  have  in  part  an  animal  diet.     But 
there  is  not  one  of  the  Ruminants  that  is  not  exclusively 
herbivorous.     Some,  as  the  Camel  and  the  Giraffe,  are 
formed  for  browsing  on  the  leaves  and  young  shoots  of 


88  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

trees,  but  most  of  the  order  are  fitted  to  gather  and  live 
upon  the  herbage  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

153.  The  feet  in  this  order  agree  in  terminating  in  two 
toes  with  hoofs.    These  appear  externally  as  if  there  was 
a  single  hoof  cleft.     Hence  these  animals  have  been  call- 
ed cloven-footed.     No  animal  in  this  order  has  front  or 
incisor  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.    There  is  a  firm  pad  there, 
against  which  the  incisor  or  cutting  teeth  of  the  lower 
jaw  press  when  the  jaws  are  brought  together.     The 
back  teeth  are  specially  formed  for  grinding,  and  the 
jaws  are  adapted  to  the  sidewise  grinding  motion.    The 
difference  between  this  and  the  motion  of  the  jaws  in  a 
carnivorous  animal,  you  may  see  if  you  observe  a  cow 
and  a  dog  when  eating. 

154.  The  name  of  this  order  is  given  to  it  from  the 
singular  process  called  rumination.     The  object  of  this 
I  will  explain.     The  stomach  of  the  Ruminant  is  not  a 
single  organ.    It  has  four  cavities,  as  you  may  see  in  Fig. 
74,  in  the  case  of  the  Sheep ;  or,  rather,  there  are  four 


Oesophagus.    „ 


3d  stomach. 


Intestine. . 


Fig.  74.— Stomachs  of  the  Sheep. 


stomachs.     The  grass  cropped  by  the  Ruminant  animal 
is  not  chewed  at  once,  but  is  passed  directly  into  the 


RUMINANT   QUADRUPEDS.  89 

large  first  stomach,  or  paunch.  Here  it  is  macerated  or 
soaked.  Then  it  is  passed  into  the  second  stomach,  or 
honeycomb  stomach,  as  it  is  called,  from  the  cellular  ar- 
rangement of  its  inner  surface.  Here  in  some  way  it  is 
ah1  made  into  distinct  balls.  Each  of  these  is  passed  up 
into  the  mouth,  and  is  chewed.  It  then  goes  down  the 
gullet  into  the  third  stomach,  the  manyplies,  so  called 
because  its  inner  lining  membrane  has  a  great  many  folds. 
From  thence  it  is  passed  into  the  fourth  stomach.  It  is 
this  that  corresponds  to  the  stomach  of  man,  and  of  all 
animals  that  live  partly  or  wholly  on  animal  food ;  for 
here  the  gastric  juice  is  secreted  and  is  mingled  with  the 
food.  In  the  suckling  Ruminant  the  milk  passes  directly 
into  the  fourth  stomach,  the  other  stomachs  remaining 
unemployed  until  the  animal  begins  to  graze. 

155.  The  purpose  of  this  arrangement  for  rumination 
is  thus  stated  by  Carpenter :  "  The  Ruminantia,  taken  as 
a  group,  are  timid,  and  are  destitute  of  powerful  means 
of  defense  against  their  foes,  seeking  safety  in  flight  when 
alarmed,  rather  than  stopping  to  defend  themselves.  A 
large  proportion  of  them  are  natives  of  tropical  regions, 
where  they  are  liable  to  the  attacks  of  the  larger  beasts 
of  prey.  Now  their  food — consisting,  as  it  does,  of  grass- 
es and  herbage,  which  contain  a  considerable  amount  of 
woody  fibre — requires  to  be  thoroughly  masticated  be- 
fore it  can  be  properly  digested.  When  feeding  on  the 
pastures  they  frequent  they  are  subject  to  many  alarms ; 
and  if  they  were  compelled  to  spend  a  considerable  time 
in  masticating  their  food  before  swallowing  it,  they  would 
often  be  in  danger  of  starvation,  by  being  obliged  to  leave 
their  pasture  before  their  wants  were  supplied.  But  by 
their  power  of  subsequently  returning  their  food  to  the 
mouth,  and  chewing  it  at  their  leisure,  they  are  enabled 
to  dispense  entirely  with  any  mastication  previously  to 
first  swallowing  it,  and  to  feed  with  comparative  quick- 
ness. They  thus  convey  a  store  of  food  into  the  first 
stomach  or  paunch,  as  the  Monkey  does  into  his  cheek- 


90  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

pouches ;  and  then,  retiring  to  a  secluded  place  among 
their  mountain  fastnesses,  they  masticate  their  aliment 
in  comparative  security.  Moreover,  the  maceration  (or 
soaking)  in  the  fluids  of  the  first  and  second  stomachs,  to 
which  the  food  has  been  subjected,  causes  it  to  be  much 
more  readily  ground  down  than  if  it  were  triturated  im- 
mediately on  being  first  cropped  from  the  pasture." 

156.  There  is  an  obvious  adaptation  of  the  structure 
of  the  Ruminants  to  the  habits  just  stated.     That  they 
may  quickly  perceive  the  approach  of  an  enemy  their 
senses  are  extremely  acute.    Their  eyes  are  placed  at  the 
side  of  the  head  rather  than  in  front,  which  affords  them 
a  great  range  of  vision.     Besides  this,  the  pupils  of  the 
eyes  have  an  oval  shape,  extending  horizontally,  instead 
of  up  and  down,  as  we  see  it  in  the  Cat.*    This  increases 
the  range  of  sight  in  the  rear  direction.     The  ears  are 
placed  far  back,  and  can  be  readily  turned  to  any  quar- 
ter.   This  is  quite  essential  in  fleeing  from  their  pursuers. 
In  order  that  they  may  flee  swiftly  they  have  long  legs, 
and  are  for  the  most  part  slender  in  form.     When  there 
is  an  accumulation  of  flesh  and  fat,  making  the  animal 
bulky  and  slow  in  motion,  it  is  commonly  owing  to  the 
influence  of  domestication.     Though  the  Ruminants  are 
generally  timid  animals,  the  means  of  defense  which  they 
have  in  their  horns  and  hoofs  some  of  them  are  disposed 
to  use  sometimes  in  offensive  warfare,  at  least  among 
each  other. 

157.  The  family  BovidaB  (Bos,  an  Ox)  is  distinguished 
from  the  other  families  of  this  order  by  the  uniform  pres- 
ence of  horns  in  both  sexes,  and  by  the  bulkiness  of  their 
forms.     The  common  Ox  is  diffused  widely  in  all  quar- 
ters of  the  globe,  and  has  a  great  variety  of  breeds.     I 
will  notice  only  one.     The  Bos  Indicus,  the  Zebu,  or 

*  The  reason  for  this  shape  of  the  pupil  in  the  cat  and  other  ani- 
mals of  the  feline  tribe  is  obvious.  In  taking  its  prey  the  animal  has 
need  of  a  good  range  of  vision  up  and  down,  or  vertically,  rather  than 
laterally,  especially  if  its  prey  be  on  any  height,  as  a  tree. 


RUMINANT    QUADRUPEDS.  91 

Brahmin  Bull,  Fig.  75,  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is  remark- 
able for  a  large  fatty  hump  above  the  shoulders.     In  ah1 


Fig.  15. — Zebu,  or  Brahmin  Bull. 

Southern  Asia  and  Eastern  Africa  this  animal  supplies 
the  place  of  the  common  Ox,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
come  from  the  same  origin,  instead  of  being  another  spe- 
cies. The  Hindoos  treat  it  with  great  reverence  and  at- 
tention. They  allow  it  to  go  about  the  streets,  which  it 
does  with  great  familiarity,  even  walking  into  shops, 
helping  itself  to  sweetmeats  and  other  articles,  and  re- 
senting the  slightest  affronts  with  a  peevish  thrust  of  the 
horns.  But  while  the  bull  is  thus  honored,  the  ox  is 
treated  without  mercy,  being  urged  on  in  its  labor  by 
the  cruel  goad.  The  Brahmin  cow  is  treated  more  kind- 
ly than  the  ox,  but  is  not  reverenced  as  the  bull  is. 

158.  The  true  Buffaloes  belong  to  a  genus  of  this  fam- 
ily.    They  are  found  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  to  some  lit- 
tle extent  in  the  south  of  Europe.    The  common  species, 
Fig.  76  (p.  92),  was  originally  a  native  of  India,  where  it 
has  long  been  domesticated,  and  used  like  the  Ox.     Its 
hide  is  very  strong,  and  harness  is  made  from  it. 

159.  The  American  Bison,  Fig.  77  (p.  92),  improperly 
called  a  Buffalo,  is  found  in  immense  herds  in  the  prairies 


92 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  76 Buffalo. 

of  North  America.    The  Indians  hunt  them  with  the  bow 
and  arrow,  mounted  upon  swift  horses  to  give  them  chase. 


1-  ig.  77. — American  Birfon. 

They  show  great  skill  as  well  as  daring,  often  firing  their 
arrows  into  the  hearts  of  their  victims.     The  flesh  of 


RUHINA:XT  QUADRUPEDS. 


93 


these  animals  constitutes  a  large  portion  of  the  food  of 
the  Indians.  Much  of  the  pemmican,  so  called,  used  by 
hunters  and  voyagers  in  the  far  north,  is  made  from  the 
meat  of  the  Bison.  Then  the  skin,  the  buffalo-robe,  is  a 
necessary  article  of  clothing,  and  is  used  also  in  construct- 
ing tents,  and  the  horns  furnish  the  powder-flasks  of  the 
hunters.  The  Buffalo  or  Bison  hunt  is  therefore  a  great 
item  in  the  life  of  an  Indian  in  the  West.  The  herds  of 
these  animals  sometimes  number  thousands.  Lewis  and 
Clarke  supposed  that  there  were  certainly  20,000  in  one 
herd  which  they  saw.  The  range  of  the  Bison  in  this 
country  is  becoming  every  year  less  extensive  from  th*e 
encroachments  of  civilized  man. 

160.  The  Yak,  Fig.  78,  is  found  in  Tartary.     It  is  not 


a  very  large  animal.  The  mass  of  hair,  which,  rising 
above  the  shoulders,  hangs  like  a  mane  almost  to  the 
ground,  is  applied  to  various  uses  by  the  Tartars.  They 
weave  it  into  cloth,  which  they  use  in  making  articles  of 
dress  and  their  tents,  and  they  also  make  ropes  from  it. 
The  hair  of  the  tail,  which  is  great  in  amount,  is  long  and 
fine.  The  tail,  with  an  ivory  or  metal  handle,  is  used  in 
India  to  keep  off  musquitoes,  and  is  called  a  chowrie. 


94 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


161.  The  Musk  Ox,  Fig.  79,  is  a  native  of  the  cold  re- 
gions of  North  America.     It  somewhat  resembles  the 


Fig.  79.— Musk  Ox. 

Yak.  It  is  covered  with  very  long  hair  which  almost 
reaches  the  ground.  It  appears  in  small  herds,  number- 
ing, perhaps,  twenty  or  thirty.  Both  this  animal  and  the 
Yak  are  rather  small,  but  the  thick  hair  covering  them 
makes  them  look  quite  large. 

Questions. — What  are  the  families  of  the  order  Ruminantia  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  usefulness  of  the  Ruminants  to  man  ?  State  how  well 
denned  this  order  is  compared  with  some  others.  What  is  the  struc- 
ture of  the  feet  of  the  Ruminants  ?  What  are  the  structure  and  ar- 
rangement of  their  teeth  ?  What  is  rumination  ?  Describe  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  stomachs  of  the  Ruminants.  Illustrate  its  purpose. 
What  is  there  in  some  Monkeys  analogous  to  the  paunch  of  the  Ru- 
minants? In  what  other  respects  is  the  organization  of  the  Rumi- 
nants adapted  to  their  habits  ?  What  is  said  of  the  arrangement  of 
the  eye  ?  What  influence  has  domestication  on  the  bulk  of  the  Rumi- 
nants ?  What  partial  exceptions  are  there  to  the  general  timid  habits 
of  this  order?  What  distinguishes  the  Bovidae  from  the  other  fami- 
lies ?  What  is  said  of  the  distribution  of  the  Ox,  and  of  its  varieties  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Bos  Indicus  ?  Where  are  the  true  Buffaloes 
found  ?  How  are  they  useful  to  man  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Ameri- 
can Bison?  What  of  its  usefulness  to  man?  What  is  said  of  the 
Yak  ?  What  of  the  Musk  Ox  ? 


RUMINANT   QUADRUPEDS.  95 


CHAPTER  X. 

RUMINANT  QUADRUPEDS — continued. 

162.  THE  different   species  of  the  OvidaB,  or  Sheep 
family,  have  many  varieties,  from  the  influence  of  domes- 
tication.    The  Sheep  is  the  first  animal  noticed  in  the 
Bible  as  subjected  to  man,  for  "Abel  was  a  keeper  of 
sheep."    The  tail  of  the  Sheep  seems  to  be  much  affected 
by  domestication,  it  being  much  larger  in  the  domesti- 
cated than  in  those  that  run  wild.     In  the  Egyptian  and 
Syrian   Sheep  it  often  becomes   enormous,  reaching  a 
weight  of  50  or  even  100  pounds,  in  which  case  a  board 
or  a  little  wagon  is  attached  to  it,  to  prevent  it  from 
dragging  on  the  ground.     This  overgrown  tail  is  mostly 
a  mass  of  fat,  which  is  considered  a  great  delicacy,  and 
is  frequently  used  as  butter. 

163.  The  Capridae,  or  Goat  family,  are  nearly  allied  to 
the  Sheep.     They  are,  however,  stronger,  lighter,  more 
agile,  and  less  timid.     They  appear  in  almost  all  parts 
of  the  world.     In  some  countries  they  are  greatly  valued 
for  their  milk.    The  best  Morocco  leather  is  made  from 
their  skins,  and  the  skin  of  the  kid  is  much  used  in  mak- 
ing fine  gloves.     The  silken  wool  of  the  Angora  Goat  of 
Asia  Minor  hangs  in  long  ringlets,  furnishing  the  ma- 
terial for  the  finest  camlets.     From  the  wool  of  the  Cash- 
mere Goat  of  Thibet  and  the  region  of  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,   are    manufactured    the    famous    Cashmere 
shawls.     The  Caucasian  Ibex,  Fig.  80  (p.  96),  which  in- 
habits the  Alpine  regions  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia, 
is  remarkable  for  its  large  and  beautiful  horns.     They 
are  surrounded  with  rings  at  regular  intervals,  and  are 
very  strong.     "When  chased,  it  will  frequently  turn  on 
its  pursuer,  and  with  its  horns,  hurl  him  from  some 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Fig.  80.— Caucasian  Ibex. 


precipice,  unless  he 
can  shoot  it  before  it 
reaches  him. 

164.  The  Cervidze, 
or  Deer  family,  are 
distinguished  from 
all  the  other  fami- 
lies of  Ruminants,  in 
having  horns  which 
are  cast  off  at  inter- 
vals, new  ones  grow- 
ing out  in  their  place. 
In  the  young  animal 
they  are  small,  but  in 
the  full-grown  Deer 
they  are  very  large. 
These  horns  are  also 
covered  with  a  vel- 
vety skin,  and  are  called  antlers.  While  they  are  grow- 
ing there  are  blood-vessels  in  this  skin,  and  from  the 
blood  in  them  the  antlers  are  made.  You  can  see  on 
them,  after  this  skin  is  stripped  off,  just  the  course  of 
the  large  arteries,  by  the  channels  for  them  in  the  horn. 
These  antlers  grow  very  rapidly.  After  they  have  at- 
tained their  growth,  there  is  no  farther  need  of  the  blood 
in  the  "  velvet,"  and  it  must  be  got  rid  of,  for  if  it  re- 
mained there  would  be  bleeding  every  time  that  the 
Deer  should  hit  any  thing  hard  with  its  antlers.  There 
is  a  singular  process  for  doing  this.  In  the  rings  of 
bone  at  the  foot  of  the  antlers  there  are  openings,  through 
which  the  arteries  pass.  These  gradually  close  up,  and 
the  supply  of  blood  to  the  "velvet"  is,  therefore,  grad- 
ually cut  off.  It  would  not  answer  to  have  this  done 
suddenly,  for  then  all  the  blood  going  to  the  head  would 
be  turned  in  upon  the  brain,  and  such  a  rush  of  blood  to 
that  organ  would  be  injurious,  perhaps  fatal.  After  blood 
ceases  to  be  supplied  to  this  skin  it  dries  and  readily  peels 


or 


KUMINANT    QUADR1 


oif,  and  the  Deer  gets  rid  of  it  by  rub 
against  the  trees. 

165.  The  females  of  this  family,  except  in  the  case  of 
the  Reindeer,  have  no  antlers.  In  those  species  that  are 
found  in  extremely  cold  climates,  as  the  Elk,  Fig.  81, 


o^     ^?\V^ 
antlers 


Fig.  81.— The  Elk. 

the  antlers  are  apt  to  be  flattened,  "  as  if,"  says  Carpen- 
ter, "  they  were  destined  to  be  used  by  the  animal,  like 
shovels,  in  clearing  the  snow  from  off  its  food."  The 
animals  of  this  tribe  are  celebrated  for  both  their  beauty 
and  speed.  They  are  distributed  over  all  parts  of  the 
globe,  except  Australia,  and  the  southern  and  central 
regions  of  Africa,  these  regions  being  supplied  in  place 
of  them  with  Giraffes  and  multitudes  of  Antelopes. 

166.  The  Reindeer  is  seen  throughout  the  Arctic  re- 
gions of  America,  Europe,  and  Asia.  It  lives  in  summer 
on  the  buds  and  twigs  of  small  shrubs,  and  in  winter  on 
a  lichen  growing  under  the  snow,  which  it  digs  up  with 

E 


98 


NATURAL   HISTOEY. 


its  feet.  It  is  gregarious  both  in  the  wild  and  in  the 
domesticated  state.  So  important  is  this  animal  to  the 
Laplander,  that  his  wealth  is  estimated  by  the  number 
of  Reindeer  which  he  has,  just  as  that  of  the  patriarchs 
of  old,  and  the  Arabs  of  the  present  time,  is  estimated 
by  the  number  of  their  herds,  and  flocks,  and  camels. 
A  Laplander  in  good  circumstances  has  several  hundred, 
and  some  have  not  less  than  two  thousand.  The  Gadfly 
and  the  Mosquito  are  so  annoying  to  the  Reindeer,  that 
the  Laplander  is  obliged  to  make  periodical  migrations 
with  his  herd  to  the  mountains  to  escape  them. 

167.  The  Axis  Deer,  Fig.  82,  is  a  beautiful  animaL    It 


Fig.  82.— The  Axis  Deer. 

is  a  native  of  India.  Its  horns  are  slender,  and  are  di- 
vided quite  regularly  into  three  branches.  Its  usual 
color  is  a  fawn  yellow,  with  regular  white  spots,  and  a 
black  stripe  running  down  the  back. 

168.  The  MoschidaB  take  their  name  from  that  pecul- 
iarly strong  perfume  called  musk,  which  is  obtained  from 
one  of  the  species.  They  resemble  the  Deer  family  in 


RUMINANT   QUADRUPEDS.  99 

general  appearance,  but  they  are  much  smaller,  and  they 
have  no  horns.     The  true  Musk-deer,  Fig.  83,  is  found 


**r 

Fig.  83.— The  Musk-deer. 

in  the  central  part  of  Asia.  The  musk  is  contained  in  a 
pouch.  Its  perfume  is  so  strong  .when  pure  and  fresh, 
that  the  hunter,  after  killing  the  animal,  is  obliged  to 
cover  his  nostrils  with  cloth  before  he  secures  the  pouch, 
else  he  will  have  severe  headache,  and  perhaps  violent 
bleeding  from  the  nose. 

169.  This  substance,  the  most  powerful  perfume  in  the 
world,  is  formed  from  the  blood  of  the  animal,  like  any 
other  secretion.     And  yet  his  blood  does  not  differ  essen- 
tially from  that  of  other  animals,  neither  is  his  food  espe- 
cially different  from  that  of  those  in  the  same  neighbor- 
hood.    The  chemistry  which  can  produce  this,  and  vari- 
ous other  perfumes  in  other  animals,  is  utterly  beyond 
our  knowledge.     The  same  thing  can  be  said  of  the 
poisons  in  both  the  animal  and  vegetable  world,  they 
being  made  in  the  animal  from  the  blood,  and  in  the 
vegetable  from  the  sap. 

170.  The  Antelopes  are  similar  to  the  Deer  in  general 
form  and  in  activity.     They  differ  from  them  chiefly  in 
having  permanent  horns.     There  are  more  than  seventy 
species  distributed  through  the  warm  parts  of  the  earth. 
They  are  most  abundant  in  Africa,  a  few  species  being 
found  in  Asia,  fewer  still  in  America,  and  only  two  in 


100  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Europe.  They  may  be  divided  into  four  sub-families: 
1.  The  true  Antelopes,  remarkable  for  their  graceful 
forms,  long  and  slender  limbs,  and  great  agility.  2.  The 
Bush  Antelopes,  having  a  more  compact  form  and  shorter 
limbs,  and  living  in  jungles  and  thickets.  3.  The  Capri- 
form  Antelopes,  shaped  much  like  goats,  and  living  on 
hills  and  mountains ;  the  Chamois  of  Europe  is  of  this 
kind.  4.  Bovine  Antelopes,  verging  in  their  shape  to 
the  Ox  family ;  this  may  be  considered  as  a  decidedly 
aberrant  group.  I  will  notice  but  a  few  of  the  species 
of  the  Antelope  tribe. 

171.  The  Springbok,  Fig.  84,  is  one  of  the  most  beau- 


rig.  84— The  Springbok. 

/ 

tiful  and  agile  of  the  true  Antelopes.  It  inhabits  south- 
ern Africa.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  habit  which  it 
has  of  springing  up  to  the  height  of  several  feet  when 
alarmed.  Large  herds  of  Springboks  spread  themselves 
over  the  wide  plains.  When  a  drought  occurs,  as  is 
often  the  case  in  the  tropical  regions,  they  migrate  in 
large  bodies  in  search  of  food.  Some  persons  have  seen, 
as  they  suppose,  as  many  as  twenty  or  thirty  thousand 
together. 

172.  Among  the  true  Antelopes  is  also  the  Gazelle, 


RUMINANT    QUADRUPEDS. 


101 


Fig.  86.— The  Gazelle. 


Fig.  85,  so  celebrated  in  the  poetry  of  the  East.  This 
is  probably  the  Roe  of  the  Bible.  Its  eyes  are  large, 
dark,  and  lustrous.  Its  speed  is  so  great  that  not  even 


Fig.  86.— The  Oryx. 


102 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


the  Greyhound  can  overtake  it.  It  lives  in  herds,  and 
is  found  in  Arabia  and  Syria.  It  is  easily  domesticated, 
and  is  often  seen  in  the  court-yards  of  houses  in  Syria. 

173.  The  Oryx,  Fig.  86  (p.  101),  is  a  native  of  South 
Africa.     It  is  the  swiftest  of  all  animals  in  that  region. 
It  has  many  of  the  characteristic  beauties  of  the  Ante- 
lopes, but  its  tail  is  like  that  of  a  horse,  and  its  horns 
are  very  peculiar,  being  perfectly  straight  and  of  a  dark 
color.     With  these  formidable  horns,  two  and  a  half  feet 
in  length,  it  can  defend  itself  even  against  the  Lion. 
When  the  Lion  attacks  it,  it  lowers  its  horns  and  receives 
him  on  its  sharp  points ;  and  the  two  have  been  often 
known  to  die  together,  the  Oryx  by  the  violence  of  the 
shock  and  the  Lion  from  the  wounds  of  the  horns. 

174.  The  Kudu,  Fig.  87,  also  a  native  of  South  Africa, 


Fig.  87 The  Kudu. 


is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Antelopes.    Its  horns 
are  nearly  four  feet  long,  and  their  spiral  form  adds 


RUMINANT    QUADRUPEDS.  103 

much  to  their  beauty.  Although  a  large  animal,  it  can 
leap  with  wonderful  activity.  The  largest  of  the  Ante- 
lopes is  the  Eland,  found  in  the  same  region.  It  is  as 
large  as  an  ox.  It  is  hunted  for  its  flesh,  which  is  high- 
ly esteemed. 

175.  The  Gnu,  or  Horned  Horse,  Fig.  88,  is  a  very 


Fig.  88.— The  Gnu. 

singular  animal  belonging  to  this  same  region.  It  is 
difficult,  at  first  view,  to  say  whether  it  has  most  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  Horse,  or  the  Buffalo,  or  the  Ante- 
lope. Its  horns  cover  the  top  of  the  forehead,  then, 
sweeping  down  in  front  of  the  face,  turn  with  a  sharp 
curve  upward.  This  is  like  some  of  the  Buffaloes.  The 
resemblance  to  the  Horse  is  in  the  mane  and  the  tail. 
The  legs  are  like  those  of  the  Antelopes.  It  is  an  animal 
of  great  speed.  "When  enraged  it  is  very  dangerous. 

176.  The  family  Camelidae  includes  the  Camels  and 
Dromedaries  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  Llamas,  which 
may  be  said  to  be  the  Camels  of  the  New.  There  are 
two  species  of  the  true  Camel :  the  Arabian  Camel,  Fig. 
89  (p.  104),  having  one  hump,  and  the  Bactrian  Camel, 
having  two  humps,  the  latter  being  an  inhabitant  of 
Central  Asia,  Thibet,  and  China. 


104  NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  89.— The  Arabian  Camel. 

177.  The  Arabian  Camel  has  been  called  very  appro- 
priately "  the  ship  of  the  desert.'1  It  is  especially  fitted 
in  many  respects  for  traveling  across  the  wide  deserts 
in  that  quarter  of  the  world.  Its  broad  elastic  cushions 
on  its  feet  afford  it  a  firm  footing  on  the  sand.  The 
callous  surfaces  on  its  chest  and  limbs  defend  it  from  the 
heat  of  the  sand  as  it  takes  its  rest.  The  eye  is  shielded 
Vfrom  the  glaring  light  of  the  sun  by  a  brow  hanging  over 
like  a  roof,  and  by  its  long  eyelashes.  Its  nostrils  can 
be  closed  at  pleasure  when  the  hot  sand  is  driven  along 
in  clouds  by  the  wind.  Its  teeth  and  lips  are  fitted  to 
the  food  on  which  it  must  depend  in  the  desert.  The 
thorny  shrubs  and  tough  leaves  which  it  eats  require 
powerful  cutting  and  grinding  teeth  for  their  mastica- 
tion. These  the  Camel  has.  And  with  its  long  stout 
lip  it  readily  draws  the  twigs  and  leaves  into  its  mouth. 
But  the  most  essential  provision  of  all  is  in  the  water- 
cells  in  one  of  the  stomachs  of  the  Camel.  Here  he  can 
stow  away  a  large  quantity  of  water  for  use  on  his  long 
journey.  This  he  uses  only  as  he  requires  it.  When 


RUMINANT   QUADRUPEDS.  105 

he  is  thirsty,  or  needs  water  to  moisten  his  food  as  he 
eats  it,  he  can  force  any  amount  that  is  required  out  of 
this  reservoir  up  into  the  throat.  By  this  arrangement 
the  Camel  can  go  without  drinking  for  many  days. 
Sometimes  travelers,  who  are  suffering  severely  from 
want  of  water,  kill  one  of  the  Camels  in  their  caravan 
for  the  purpose  of  getting  at  the  water  in  this  reservoir. 

178.  The  Camel  is  a  strange  -  looking  animal.     The 
Pictorial  Museum  contains  the  following  good  descrip- 
tion of  it :  "  There  is  something  strange  and  imposing  in 
the  aspect  of  the  gaunt  and  angular  Camel,  destitute,  as 
it   confessedly  is,  of  grace    and    animation.     We   are 
amazed  at  its  height,  its  uncouth  proportions,  its  long, 
thin  neck,  its  meagre  limbs,  and  the  huge  hump  on  its 
back,  which  conveys  the  idea  of  distortion.     Quietly  it 
stands  in  one  fixed  attitude,  its  long-lashed  eyelids  droop- 
ing over  the  large  dark  eyes;  it  moves,  and  onward 
stalks  with  slow  and  measured  steps,  as  if  Exercise  were 
painful.     To  complete  the  picture,  it  is  covered  with 
shaggy  hair  irregularly  disposed,  here  forming  tangled 
masses,  there  almost  wanting.     Its  thick  mobile  upper 
lip  is  deeply  divided ;  its  feet  are  large  and  spreading, 
the  toes  being  merely  tipped  with  little  hoofs." 

179.  The  docility  of  the  Camel  is  such  that  one  man 
can  lead  thirty,  or  even  fifty  of  them,  fastened  together 
in  a  row.     The  traveler  mounts  the  Camel  as  it  is  kneel- 
ing ;  and  as  it  rises,  contrary  to  the  habit  of  all  other  ani- 
mals, upon  its  hind  feet  first,  he  will  be  thrown  suddenly 
over  its  head  unless  he  is  especially  careful.     The  im- 
portance of  the  Camel  in  the  regions  where  it  is  found 
can  hardly  be  realized  by  us.     It  is  essential,  as  you  have 
seen,  wherever  wide  deserts  are  to  be  traversed ;  and  St. 
Hilaire,  in  his  Letters  on  Egypt,  says  that  "  without  it 
nearly  the  whole  of  Africa  and  one  quarter  of  Asia  might 
perhaps  have  remained  uninhabited."     This  statement  is 
rather  too  strong,  but  it  shows  what  is  the  estimate  of 
the  Camel's  value  by  one  who  had  traveled  extensively 

E  2 


106  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

in  those  regions.  Besides  its  uses  as  a  beast  of  burden, 
this  animal  affords  sustenance  to  man  by  its  milk  and  its 
flesh,  and  also  hair  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth. 

180.  The  Dromedary  is  a  mere  variety  of  the  Camel, 
holding  the  same  relation  to  it  as  a  race-horse  does  to 
the  heavy  draft-horse.     It  is  used  principally  for  jour- 
neys where  dispatch  is  requisite ;  and  it  can  carry  only 
a  single  person,  and  but  a  light  burden  in  addition.     It 
is  by  no  means  as  fleet  as  a  horse,  but  it  can  maintain  a 
moderate  pace  for  a  long  time,  going  easily  at  the  rate 
of  six  or  even  eight  miles  an  hour  for  twenty-four  hours 
consecutively. 

181.  The  Llamas  of  South  America,  of  which  there  are 
several  species,  though  they  are  much  smaller  animals 
than  the  Camel,  resemble  it  in  many  respects  in  form 
and  structure.    They  have,  however,  no  hump,  and  their 
feet,  instead  of  being  cushioned,  have  hoofs  with  claw-like 
projections,  fb  enable  them  to  climb  the  rocky  hills  among 
which  they  live.     The  Peruvian  Llama,  Fig.  90,  inhabits 


Fig.  90.— Peruvian  Llama. 

elevated  regions,  almost  on  the  borders  of  perpetual  snow. 
When  the  Spaniards  came  first  to  South  America,  this 
animal  was  the  only  beast  of  burden ;  but  now  it  is  su- 


RUMINANT    QUADRUPEDS. 


107 


perseded  mostly  by  the  horses  and  mules  which  have 
been  introduced  from  Europe. 

182.  In  the  family  of  Camelopardidae  there  is  only  one 
known  species,  the  Giraife,  Fig.  91.     This  very  peculiar 


Fig.  91.— Giraffe. 

animal  has  some  points  of  resemblance  to  the  Camel,  and 
some  to  the  Deers  and  Antelopes.  It  is  found  only  in 
Africa;  there  being  two  varieties,  one  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  continent,  and  the  other  in  Nubia,  Abyssinia, 
and  the  adjoining  districts.  It  is  seen  in  herds  of  twelve 
to  forty  in  number,  making  splendid  objects  in  tfre  land- 
scape, as  with  their  tall  necks  they  browse  from  the  trees. 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  the  Ovidas  ?  What  effect  is  produced 
on  their  tails  by  domestication  ?  How  do  the  Capridae  differ  from  the 
Ovidae  ?  What  is  said  (W  their  usefulness  to  man  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  Angora  Goat  ?  Of  the  Cashmere  Goat  ?  Of  the  Caucasian  Ibex  ? 
How  are  the  Cervidae  distinguished  from  the  other  families  of  the  Ru- 
minants? What  is  the  office  of  the  "velvet,"  and  how  is  it  disposed 


108  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

of  when  no  longer  needed  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Elk  ?  Of  the  Rein- 
deer ?  Of  the  Axis  Deer  ?  How  do  the  Moschidae  differ  from  the 
Deer  family  ?  What  gives  them  their  name  ?  How  is  the  musk  ob- 
tained ?  What  is  said  of  the  chemistry  of  this  secretion  ?  Compare 
the  Antelopes  with  the  Deer.  What  countries  do  they  inhabit?  Into 
what  sub-families  are  they  divided  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Springbok  ? 
Of  the  Gazelle  ?  Of  the  Oryx?  Of  the  Kudu?  Of  the  Gnu?  What 
are  included  in  the  family  Camelidae  ?  Where  are  the  two  species  of 
Camels  found,  and  how  do  they  differ  ?  Show  in  what  respects  the 
organization  of  the  Camel  is  adapted  to  its  habits  and  circumstances. 
Describe  its  appearance.  What  is  said  of  its  docility?  Of  its  mode 
of  rising  from  a  kneeling  posture  ?  Of  its  importance  to  man  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Dromedary  ?  What  of  the  Llamas  ?  What  of  the  Gi- 
raffe? 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE    WHALE    TRIBE. 

183.  THE  water  contains  both  the  largest  and  smallest 
of  animals.     In  the  sub-class  now  to  be  considered,  the 
Cetacea,  or  Whale  tribe,  we  find  the  largest  animals  ex- 
isting at  the  present  time.     Those  monstrous  terrestrial 
quadrupeds,  the  Elephant  and  the  Hippopotamus,  are  not 
to  be  compared  to  the  Whale ;  and  even  the  smaller  spe- 
cies of  this  class,  the  Dolphin  and  Porpoise,  are  above 
the  average  size  of  land  animals. 

1 84.  The  animals  of  this  tribe  are,  unlike  all  that  we 
have  as  yet  considered,  destitute  of  both  hands  and  feet. 
Though  they  are  Mammals,  they  are  fitted  to  live,  like 
the  Fishes,  in  the  water.    They  were  classified  among  fish- 
es by  ancient  zoologists,  and  are  still  spoken  of  as  fish  in 
ordinary  conversation.    There  is  one  group  of  Mammals 
already  noticed,  the  Seal  family,  which  have  some  ap- 
proach to  the  Whales  both  in  form  and  habits  (§  101). 

185.  The  general  shape  of  the  Whales  is  like  that  of 
fishes.    The  tail  is,  however,  different  in  one  respect.    In 
the  Whale  it  is  flat  horizontally,  not  vertically,  as  in  the 
Fish.     In  swimming,  therefore,  it  moves  up  and  down, 


THE    WHALE   TEIBE.  109 

while  that  of  the  fish  moves  laterally.  Some  of  its  mo- 
tions, however,  are  oblique,  and  not  wholly  vertical.  It 
is  with  the  tail,  as  in  the  case  of  fishes,  that  the  Whale 
mostly  swims,  the  flippers  answering  the  purpose  chiefly 
of  balancers.  When  the  Whale  is  killed  he  turns  over  on 
his  back,  showing  that  it  is  by  the  action  of  the  flippers 
that  he  keeps  in  his  ordinary  position.  Though  the  Whale 

has  neither  hands  nor  feet, 
yet  the  frame-work  of  the 
flippers  is  much  like  that  of 
a  hand,  as  may  be  seen  in 
Fig.  92,  representing  a  flip- 
per, and  also  its  bones  un- 
covered. The  immense  pow- 
er of  the  tail  in  swimming 
can  be  judged  of  by  its 
breadth,  which  often  is  20 

Fig.  92 — Flipper  of  the  Whale.          feet. 

186.  The  skin  of  the  Cetacea  is  very  peculiar.   In  other 
animals  which  have  much  fat,  it  is  accumulated  beneath 
the  skin  ;  but  in  the  Whale  the  skin  is  enormously  thick, 
and  has  the  fat  mingled  with  its  fibres.     It  is  this  mix- 
ture of  skin  and  fat  which  is  called  blubber.     This  is 
sometimes  two  feet  thick,  and  weighs  in  some  cases  30 
tons ;  and  yet,  it  being  lighter  than  water,  it  helps  to  buoy 
up  the  monstrous  body.     When  stripped  of  its  blubber 
the  Whale  sinks  at  once.     The  mingling  of  the  fat  with 
the  skin  has  two  objects.     One  is  to  enable  the  Whale 
to  keep  its  blood  warm  in  the  cold  water  of  the  frigid 
regions,  fat  being  one  of  the  best  non-conductors  of  heat, 
and  therefore  serving  to  keep  the  heat  in  the  body.    The 
other  is  to  enable  the  animal  to  bear  the  immense  press- 
ure of  the  water  when  it  goes  down  to  great  depths. 

187.  Although  the  Whale  has  lungs,  like  terrestrial  an- 
imals, it  can  stay  under  the  water  for  a  long  time.    It  has 
a  peculiar  provision  enabling  it  to  do  this.     This  I  will 
explain.     In  the  "  First  Book  in  Physiology"  I  showed 


110  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

you  that  the  great  object  of  breathing  is  to  change  dark 
blood  into  red  blood,  and  that  the  blood,  as  it  returns  to 
the  heart  from  all  parts  of  the  body  of  a  dark  color,  is 
sent  to  the  lungs  to  be  changed  to  red  blood,  before  it  is 
again  distributed  over  the  system.  Red  blood  is  neces- 
sary to  every  organ,  to  have  life  go  on ;  and  if  it  could 
be  supplied  to  all  the  organs  without  breathing,  then  the 
breathing  could  be  suspended  without  destroying  life. 
Now  the  Whale  has  large  reservoirs  where  the  red  blood 
accumulates  while  it  is  up  at  the  surface  of  the  water 
breathing.  When,  therefore,  it  goes  down,  every  part 
of  its  body  is  supplied  with  red  blood  from  these  reser- 
voirs. WTien  the  supply  is  gone,  the  Whale  feels  un- 
comfortable, and  rises  to  the  surface  to  renew  the  sup- 
ply. The  nostrils  are  near  the  highest  part  of  the  head, 
so  that  it  can  breathe  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  surface. 
These  orifices,  and  also  the  openings  of  the  ears,  have 
valves,  which  can  close  so  tightly  that,  even  when  subject- 
ed to  the  pressure  of  a  great  depth  of  water,  not  a  drop 
can  enter. 

188.  The  nostrils  are  the  blow-holes.     The  Whale  has 
a  curious  apparatus  for  spouting.     There  are  two  large 
pouches  under  the  nostrils,  which  can  be  filled  with  wa- 
ter taken  in  by  the  mouth.     Here  it  can  be  retained  by 
an  arrangement  of  valves  till  the  Whale  wishes  to  spout ; 
and  then,  by  a  forcible  compression  of  the  pouches,  the 
water  is  thrown  upward  through  the  blow-holes,  the 
valves  of  which  are  pushed  open. 

189.  The  true  Whales  are  of  two  kinds  or  families: 
1.  The  Spermaceti  Whale,  which  has  teeth  in  the  lower 
jaw.     2.  The  Whalebone  Whale,  which  has  no  teeth. 
Of  the  Spermaceti  Whales  there  are  two  species,  the 
most  common  of  which,  the  Cachelot,  or  Sperm  Whale, 
Fig.  93  (p.  Ill),  I  will  notice.     When  full-grown  it  is 
from  seventy  to  eighty  feet  long.     The  capture  of  this 
animal  is^attended  with  even  greater  danger  than  that 
of  the  Greenland  Whale,  on  account  of  its  formidable 


THE    WHALE   TRIBE. 


Ill 


Fig.  93 The  Sperm  Whale. 

teeth.  In  the  Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford  there  is  an 
under-jaw-bone  of  this  whale,  sixteen  and  a  half  feet  in 
length,  containing  forty-eight  huge  teeth.  It  can  knock 
a  boat  in  pieces  with  its  tail,  or  bite  it  in  two  with  its 
jaws.  In  its  immense  head  there  is  a  very  small  brain, 
but  there  is  a  large  reservoir  of  mingled  spermaceti  and 
oil  in  nearly  a  liquid  state.  A  hole  is  cut  in  its  head  by 
its  captors,  and  this  mixture  is  baled  out  with  buckets. 
By  draining  and  boiling,  the  spermaceti  is  obtained  from 
this  separate  from  the  oil.  The  blubber  of  this  whale 
is  thin,  but  yields  a  fine  and  valuable  oil.  The  sperma- 
ceti obtained  from  a  Sperm  Whale  of  ordinary  size 
amounts  to  about  ten  or  twelve  barrels. 

190.  The  perfume  called  Ambergris  is  found  in  the  in- 
testines of  the  Sperm  Whale.     It  is  of  the  consistence 
of  wax,  is  inflammable,  and  has  a  musky  odor. 

191.  The  Sperm  Whales  are  gregarious,  forming  com- 
panies of  some  hundreds,  with  two  of  the  largest  as 
guards  and  leaders.     Their  food  is  fish,  which  they  can 
swallow  of  a  large  size,  for  their  throats  are  capacious 


112  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

enough  to  take  in  a  body  of  the  size  of  a  man.  But  one 
young  is  produced  at  a  time,  and  this  is  about  fourteen 
feet  long.  The  milk  of  the  mother  Whale  is  very  much 
like  that  of  quadrupeds. 

192.  Whalebone  Whales  are  as  large  as  the  Sperm 
Whales.     There  are  two  species,  the  Greenland  Whale, 
and  the  Rorqual.     The  former  is  the  best  known,  and 
is  altogether  the  most  valuable,  because  it  furnishes  the 
most  blubber  and  the  best  whalebone.     These  whales 
have  no  teeth,  but  instead  have  a  remarkable  apparatus 
for  taking  their  food,  which  consists  of  very  small  sea- 
animals  of  various  kinds.     The  whalebone  is  the  frame- 
work of  the  food-catching  apparatus ;  it  is  in  the  head, 
in  laminae  or  plates  to  the  number  of  three  or  four  hund- 
red.   All  of  these  are  fringed  with  fibres  extending  down 
into  the  mouth.     Now,  when  the  Whale  feeds,  it  rushes 
through  the  water  with  its  huge  mouth  wide  open,  throw- 
ing out  the  water  that  enters  the  mouth  by  spouting 
through  the  blow-holes.     The  consequence  is,  that  as  the 
water  pass.es  through  the  fringes,  the  little  animals  in  it 
are   caught  by  them,  and  then  are   swallowed.     The 
throat,  in  contrast  with  that  of  the  Sperm  Whale,  is  so 
narrow,  that  what  an  ox  could  easily  swallow  would 
choke  this  immense  animal. 

193.  The  Dolphin  family  of  the  Cetacea  includes,  be- 
sides the  Porpoise  and  the  Dolphin,  many  animals  ordi- 
narily called  Whales.    They  all  have  teeth  in  greater 
number  than  any  other  Mammals,  some  of  them  even 
over  a  hundred  in  each  jaw.     The  Porpoise  occurs  hi 
large  numbers  in  all  the  seas  of  Europe,  and  on  the  coasts 
of  America.     It  is  abundant  in  our  bays  and  large  rivers. 
Its  length  is  from  four  to  eight  feet.     It  lives  on  her- 
rings, mackerel,  salmon,  etc.     It  is  the  .most  common  and 
abundant  of  all  the  Cetacea.     The  blubber  yields  a  very 
fine  oil.     Its  skin  is  tanned,  and  the  leather  is  used  par- 
ticularly for  the  upper  leather  of  boots  and  shoes.     It  is 
amusing  to  see  the  Porpoises  rise  to  the  surface,  and 


THE    WHALE   TRIBE.  113 

then  dive  down,  as  they  chase  each  other  in  their  gam- 
bols. The  Dolphin  is  quite  as  sportive  as  the  Porpoise, 
and  much  more  agile.  It  often  follows  ships  in  numer- 
ous herds,  executing  its  playful  movements.  The  stories 
about  the  beautifully-changing  hues  of  the  dying  Dolphin 
are  untrue;  this  voracious  animal  is  altogether  unpoet- 
ical  even  to  death.  Its  colors  are  black  and  white,  and 
the  only  change  which  occurs  is  that  the  black,  after  a 
time,  becomes  brown,  and  the  white  gray. 

194.  There  are  some  aberrant  genera  of  the  Dolphin 
family.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  we  have  in  the 
Narwhal,  or  Sea  Unicorn,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  Fig. 
94.  Its  body  is  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  long.  It  has 


Fig.  94.— The  Narwhal. 

a  long,  straight,  pointed  tusk,  from  five  to  ten  feet  in 
length.  It  really  has  two  tusks,  but  only  one  of  them 
becomes  long,  the  other  not  projecting  sufficiently  tp  be 
seen.  There  is  much  question  about  the  use  to  which 
the  animal  puts  this  tusk.  Some  suppose  that  its  chief 
purpose  is  to  dig  up  sea-weed  for  food.  Others  suppose 


114  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

that  the  prey  of  the  animal  is  transfixed  by  it.  It  is,  at 
any  rate,  a  very  powerful  weapon,  and  the  Narwhal  has 
been  known  to  thrust  it  into  the  oak  timbers  of  a  ship. 
This  animal,  formidable  as  it  is,  is  often  taken  by  the 
Greenlander,  who  obtains  from  it  oil,  food,  weapons,  and 
ropes.  He  uses  the  tusk  in  the  manufacture  of  spears, 
arrows,  hooks,  etc. 

195.  There  is  a  family  of  Cetacea  called  the  Dugong 
tribe,  which  is  so  aberrant  that  zoologists  differ  as  to 
their  proper  place,  some  associating  them,  on  account  of 
their  thick,  tough  skins,  with  the  Pachydermata,  and 
some  placing  them  with  the  Cetacea.  They  are  herbiv- 
orous, and  not  carnivorous  like  the  other  families  of  the 
Cetacea,  living  mostly  on  sea-weed.  They  have  stiff  mus- 
taches, and,  when  their  bodies  are  partly  out  of  the  water, 
they  have,  viewed  at  a  distance,  a  somewhat  human  ap- 
pearance, which  has  given  rise  to  the  "  mermaid"  stories. 
These  animals  are  called  Sea-cows,  Sea-calves,  etc.  One 
species,  found  in  the  Indian  Seas,  especially  among  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  is  eighteen  or  twenty 
feet  in  length.  In  Fig.  95  you  have  the  skeleton  of  this 


Fig.  95.— Skeleton  of  Dugong. 

singular  animal.  It  has,  you  see,  no  hinder  extremities. 
The  anterior  extremities  are  paddles,  like  the  flippers  of 
the  Whale ;  and  the  resemblance  in  the  bones  to  those  of 
the  hand  of  man  is  very  decided,  the  four  fingers  being 
present,  and  an  attempt  at  a  thumb.  There  is  an  animal 
similar  to  this  found  on  the  coast  of  Mexico  and  of  the 
northern  part  of  South  America.  It  is,  however,  smaller, 


CHARACTERISTICS    OP   BIRDS.  115 

being  but  six  or  seven  feet  long,  and  on  its  paddles  are 
short  nails,  by  which  it  can  drag  its  unwieldy  body  on 
the  land  to  bask  in  the  sun  or  to  get  food.  All  the  ani- 
mals of  this  tribe  are  like  the  Whales  in  their  paddles, 
their  oily  skin,  their  horizontally  flattened  tail,  and  their 
fish-like  shape. 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  the  size  of  animals  living  in  water? 
How  do  the  Whale  tribe  compare  in  size  with  terrestrial  animals  ? 
How  do  the  Cetacea  differ  from  all  other  Mammals  ?  What  group 
of  Mammals  are  somewhat  like  them  ?  How  does  the  tail  of  Whales 
differ  from  that  of  Fishes  ?  What  is  the  breadth  of  it  ?  What  is 
the  chief  office  of  the  flippers  ?  What  is  said  of  their  frame-work  ? 
What  is  the  blubber  ?  What  purposes  does  it  serve  ?  Explain  the 
provision  which  enables  the  Whale  to  stay  under  water  so  long. 
What  is  said  of  the  nostrils  ?  Describe  the  spouting  apparatus. 
What  are  the  two  families  of  Whales  ?  Describe  the  Cachelot  Whale. 
What  is  said  of  its  spermaceti?  How  much  is  obtained  from  one 
Whale  ?  What  is  Ambergris  ?  What  is  said  of  the  habits  of  Sperm 
Whales?  What  is  said  of  the  Whalebone  Whales?  What  are  in- 
cluded in  the  Dolphin  family?  What  is  said  of  the  Porpoise? 
What  of  the  Dolphin?  What  of  the  Narwhal?  What  of  the  Du- 
gong  family  ?  What  are  the  animals  of  this  family  commonly  called  ? 
Where  are  they  found  ?  What  is  said  of  the  structure  of  the  species 
represented  ? 


CHAPTER  XII. 

CHARACTERISTICS-  OF   BIRDS. 

196.  BIRDS  form  the  second  grand  division  of  warm- 
blooded Vertebrates.  This  division  is  separated  from 
the  first  division,  the  Mammals,  by  very  marked  charac- 
teristics, which  I  will  point  out.  1.  They  are  oviparous 
(§23).  2.  They  do  not  suckle  their  young.  3.  They  are 
covered  with  feathers.  4.  They  are  constructed  for  flight, 
with  some  few  exceptions.  5.  They  have  no  teeth,  which 
is  true  of  only  a  few  species  of  Mammals.  6.  They  have 
bills,  which  is  true  of  only  one  species  of  Mammals,  the 
Duck-billed  Platypus  of  Australia  (§  133).  7.  They  have 


116 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


some  peculiarities  in  the  digestive  organs,  most  birds  hav- 
ing, in  place  of  the  process  of  mastication,  a  crop  to  soak 
their  food  and  a  gizzard  to  grind  it. 

197.  Feathers  have  some  resemblance  to  hairs,  but  dif- 
fer from  them  in  some  important  respects.     A  feather 
has  commonly  three  distinct  parts :  a  horny  tube,  or  quill 
part;  a  stem  proceeding  from  this  tube;  and  laminae, 
which  are  commonly  joined  together  by  barbs  or  teeth 
on  their  edges.    The  laminae  thus  locked  together  enable 
the  feather  to  press  upon  the  air  in  flight.     In  what  is 
called  down  the  laminae  are  very  narrow,  and  are  entire- 
ly separate. 

198.  The  wing  may  be  considered  as  a  hand  with  a 
feathery  appendage,  so  that  it  may  press  upon  consider- 
able air  at  once,  and  thus  raise  up  the  bird.    According- 
ly, we  find  that  .the  bones  of  the  wing  are  essentially  the 

same  as  those  in  the  arm 
and  hand  of  man.  In  Fig. 
96  we  have  the  bones  of  a 
bird's  wing.  Comparing 
this  with  the  correspond- 
'ing  part  of  the  skeleton 
of  man  in  Fig.  1,  we  have, 
I.,  the  elbow-joint ;  II.,  the 
wrist ;  III.,  the  knuckle- 
joint ;  a,  the  arm-bone ;  5, 
the  bones  of  the  fore-arm ; 
c,  the  bones  correspond- 
ing to  those  in  the  body 
of  the  hand ;  o,  the  thumb- 
bone  ;  1,  2,  3,  4,  attempts 
at  fingers.  These  rudi- 
mentary fingers,  you  see, 
are  very  different  from  the 
fingers  in  the  wing  of  a 
Bat,  Fig.  20.  There  they 
Fig.  oe.-Bones  of  Gyrfaicou's  Wing,  needed  to  be  long  as  frame- 


CHARACTERISTICS    OF   BIRDS. 


work  for  the  thin,  membranous  wing.  But  here  the  fin- 
ger-bones are  needed  only  for  the  attachment  of  the 
strong  feathers,  and  such  an  extension  of  them  as  we 
have  in  the  Bat  would  not  conduce  to  strength,  and  there- 
fore would  be  out  of  place. 

199.  As  flying  requires  more  strength  than  any  thing 
else  which  the  Bird  does,  the  muscles  of  the  wing  are 
larger  than  those  in  any  other  part  of  the  body.  It  is 
this  which  makes  the  breast  so  full.  To  accommodate 
these  large  muscles,  the  breast-bone  has  a  peculiar  shape. 
In  man  it  is  flat  and  small ;  but  in  the  Bird  it  is  very 
large,  making  a  sort  of  convex  buckler  on  the  front  part 
of  the  skeleton,  with  a  ridge  or  keel  projecting  from  it. 
In  Fig.  97  you  have  a  front  view,  and  in  Fig.  98  a  side 
view  of  the  breast-bone  of  a  bird.  The  chief  muscles 


Fig.  97. 


Fig.  98. 


that  move  the  wings  are  fastened  to  the  keel,  and  spread 
over  the  breast-bone.  In  the  birds  that  are  cooked  for 
the  table  any  one  can  observe  that  this  mass  of  muscle  or 
meat  is  thickest  in  those  birds  which  fly  most.  It  is  much 
thicker  in  the  Pigeon,  for  example,  than  it  is  in  the  com- 
mon Fowl.  In  those  birds  which  do  not  fly  at  all  there 
is  little  muscle  on  the  breast,  and  the  keel  on  the  breast- 
bone is  absent,  as  you  may  see  in  the  skeleton  of  the  Os- 
trich, Fig.  4.  In  such  birds  the  bones  and  the  muscles  of 
the  lower  extremities  are  very  large,  while  they  are  com- 
paratively small  in  those  which  are  much  on  the  wing. 


118  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

200.  The  amount  of  muscular  power  required  for  flight 
in  the  air  is  not  commonly  appreciated.     If  we  look  at 
the  breadth  of  wing  in  a  bird,  as  compared  with  the  size 
of  the  animal  when  stripped  of  its  feathers,  we  can  have 
some  idea  of  the  extent  of  whig  which  a  man  would  need 
to  enable  him  to  fly.    And  to  work  efficiently  such  enor- 
mous wings  as  he  would  require,  he  must  have  enormous 
muscles.    Those  which  move  the  arms  of  the  most  broad- 
chested  and  brawny  man  are  far  from  being  large  enough 
to  enable  him  to  fly,  even  if  he  had  wings.     To  do  this, 
he  must  have  the  keel  on  the  breast-bone,  like  the  bird, 
to  afford  an  attachment  for  a  thick  mass  of  muscle.    We 
see,  then,  why  it  is  that  all  the  attempts  which  men  have 
made  to  fly  have  proved  failures.    It  is  not  that  the  wings 
have  not  been  properly  made,  but  that  there  was  not  suf- 
ficient muscle  to  work  them. 

201.  As  flying  requires  such  strong  exertion,  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  Bird  should  be  as  light  as  possible. 
There  is  a  singular  contrivance  for  this  purpose.     The 
air  taken  into  the  lungs  does  not  all  stop  there,  but  some 
of  it  passes  thence  into  cells  or  sacs  in  different  parts  of 
the  body,  and  also  into  many  of  the  bones,  which  are  hol- 
low for  this  purpose.    This  air  apparatus  is  in  extent  pro- 
portionate to  the  powers  of  flight.     Thus,  in  the  Eagle, 
the  air  goes  into  all  the  bones,  while  in  the  Ostrich  and 
the  Penguin  it  goes  only  into  the  thigh-bones. 

202.  The  digestive  organs  of  the  Bird  are  very  pecul- 
iar.   They  are  the  only  animals  that  have  a  gizzard.    This 
organ  is  a  stomach,  which  has  on  its  inside  a  lining  as 
tough  and  hard  as  leather.     This  is  for  the  purpose  of 
bruising  and  rubbing  the  food,  which  is  done  by  the  ac- 
tion of  very  stout  muscles.    These  constitute  the  bulk  of 
the  gizzard ;  and  they  are  so  arranged  that  they  squeeze 
and  rub  two  opposite  surfaces  of  the  inside  lining  against 
each  other.     The  food  is  therefore  ground  in  the  same 
manner  as  grain  is  between  the  millstones  of  a  flour-mill. 
The  power  of  this  grinding  apparatus  is  made  still  more 


CHAEACTERISTICS    OF   BIKDS. 


119 


effectual  by  sand  and  small  stones,  which  the  Bird  swal- 
lows with  its  food.  In  Fig.  99  you  see  the  gizzard  of  a 
Turkey  cut  open.  You  observe  the  two  semi-globular 


a 


Fig.  99.— Gizzard  of  the  Turkey. 

masses  of  muscle,  and  the  lining  covering  them  on  the 
inside  of  the  organ.  While  these  grind  the  food,  the 
gastric  juice  which  digests  it  is  all  the  time  trickling 
down  upon  it  from  the  gullet  at  a,  where  it  oozes  out 
from  a  great  many  little  openings. 

203.  This  grinding  operation  of  the  gizzard  takes  the 
place  of  the  mastication  which  is  done  by  those  animals 


120 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


a 


that  have  teeth ;  the  Bird  using  its  bill  only  for  gather- 
ing its  food,  and  not  for  masticating  it.  The  arrange- 
ment described  does  not  exist  in  full  in  all  birds,  but  only 
in  those  that  live  on  grains,  termed  granivorous  birds. 
In  other  birds  it  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
food.  In  those  that  live  altogether  on  flesh,  or  on  fishes, 
there  is  no  real  gizzard,  but  a  thin  and  membranous  stom- 
ach, for  there  is  no  need  in  them  of  any  grinding  and 
crushing  process. 

204.  There  is  one  part  of  the  digestive  apparatus  of 
birds  yet  to  be  noticed.     Before  the  food  is  subjected  to 
the  grinding  of  the  gizzard,  it  is  macerated  or  soaked  for 

some  time  in  the  crop,  as  it  is  called,  a 
sac  or  pouch  which  opens  into  the  gul- 
let. When  the  grains  are  first  swallow- 
ed, they  are  passed  into  the  crop  ;  and 
•w  when  they  are  sufficiently  macerated, 
"  they  are  forced  out  of  the  crop,  down 
the  gullet,  into  the  gizzard  to  be  ground. 
The  crop,  you  see,  is  to  the  Bird  what 
the  paunch  is  to  the  Ruminant  quadru- 
ped (§  154),  a  convenient  receptacle  for 
the  food,  and  a  place  for  its  maceration. 
In  Fig.  100  you  have  a  representation 
of  the  parts  mentioned,  a  being  the  gul- 
let, b  the  crop,  c  that  part  of  the  gullet 
rig.  100.  where  the  gastric  juice  is  made,  and  d 

the  gizzard. 

205.  The  incubation,  or  hatching  of  eggs,  requires  dif- 
ferent periods  in  different  species  of  birds.     In  the  Hum- 
ming-birds it  is  but  twelve  days,  in  the  Canaries  fifteen 
to  eighteen,  Fowls  twenty-one,  Ducks  twenty-five,  and 
Swans  forty  to  forty-five.     The  object  of  sitting  on  the 
eggs  is  simply  to  provide  the  requisite  amount  of  heat. 
The  same  degree  provided  in  any  other  way  will  answer, 
and  eggs  have  often  been  hatched  by  steam.     The  heat 
of  the  sun  is  sufficient  to  hatch  the  eggs  of  some  birds 


CHARACTERISTICS    OF   BIRDS.  121 

living  in  the  tropics,  as  the  Ostrich.  •  The  popular  story 
about  this  bird  is  not  true.  There  is  no  neglect  on  her 
part  when  she  leaves  her  eggs  in  the  sand,  for  when  she 
is  in  a  temperate  climate,  where  the  heat  of  the  sun  is 
not  suificient  to  hatch  them,  she  sits  on  them.  The 
Mound  birds  of  Australia  have  a  singular  way  of  pro- 
viding for  heat  in  hatching  their  eggs.  Instead  of  sit- 
ting on  them,  they  place  them  in  mounds  of  decaying 
vegetable  matter,  which  they  heap  up  for  this  purpose. 
The  process  of  decay  produces  all  the  heat  that  is  requi- 
site. Most  birds  make  nests,  not  to  live  in,  but  to  hatch 
their  eggs,  lining  them  commonly  with  some  soft  mate- 
rial. The  Eider-duck  lines  her  nest  with  down  which 
she  strips  from  her  own  breast. 

206.  The  formation  of  a  feathered  animal  from  the 
simple  contents  of  an  egg  by  the  stimulus  of  heat  is  one 
of  the  most  wonderful  things  in  nature.     When  the  bird 
is  fully  formed,  it  cuts  its  way  out  of  the  shell  with  an 
instrument  furnished  it  for  this  purpose,  a  pointed  scale 
fastened  to  the  end  of  its  beak.     Any  one  can  readily 
see  this  on  the  upper  bill  of  the  newly-born  chicken. 
Soon  after  its  birth  this  scale  drops  off,  as  the  chicken 
has  no  farther  use  for  it. 

207.  The  senses  which  are  most  developed  in  birds 
are  the  sight,  smell,  and  hearing.     The  sense  of  touch 
in  most  of  them  is  very  slight ;  but  some,  as  the  Duck 
tribe,  have  quite  an  acute  sense  of  touch  in  their  bills, 
guiding  them  in  their  search  for  food.    The  sense  of 
taste  is  also,  in  most  birds  at  least,  very  slight.    The 
sight  is  generally  acute,  especially  in  birds   of  prey* 
Birds  have  a  kind  of  third  eyelid  inside  of  the  others? 
called  the  nictitating  or  winking  membrane.     It  is  very 
thin,  and  is  commonly  folded  up  in  the  corner  of  the  eye 
out  of  sight,  but  it  can  be  drawn  over  the  whole  front 
of  the  eye  when  it  is  needed.     The  bird  can  see  through 
it,  and  the  object  of  it  is  to  diminish  the  light  that  en- 
ters the  eye  when  it  is  very  intense.     It  is  this  which 

F 


122 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


enables  the  Eagle/and  other  birds  also,  to  look  directly 
at  the  sun.  The  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute  in  all  birds 
in  which  it  can  be  of  service  in  searching  for  food,  as, 
for  example,  in  those  that  live  on  carrion.  While  all 
birds  have  ears,  there  is  only  one  kind,  the  Owl  tribe, 
that  has  any  external  ear.  In  all  others  there  is  merely 
an  opening  to  the  passage  leading  to  the  internal  appa- 
ratus of  hearing,  and  even  this  is  concealed  among  the 
feathers  of  the  head. 

208.  Birds  are  digitigrade,  §  92.  You  can  see  this  to 
be  true  in  the  case  of  the  Ostrich,  Fig.  4,  if,  comparing 
the  bones  of  the  leg  with  the  same  bones  in  man,  Fig.  1 , 
you  begin  at  the  thigh-bone  and  go  downward.  In  Fig. 
101  you  have  the  bones  of  a  bird's  leg,  a  being  the  thigh- 


Fig.  101. 


Fig.  102. 


Fig.  103. 


bone,  b  the  bones  of  the  leg  proper,  c  the  heel-bone,  long 
and  extending  upward,  and  d  the  bones  of  the  foot.  In 
Fig.  102  is  the  outline  of  the  leg  of  a  man,  with  letters 
to  correspond  with  those  of  Fig.  101,  that  you  may  read- 
ily make  the  comparison.  In  Fig.  103  you  have  the 
perching  apparatus  of  birds  represented,  and  you  can 
see  how  it  is  that  they  can  sleep  on  their  perches  with- 
out falling  oif.  There  is,  you  observe,  a  large  muscle  in 
front  of  the  thigh-bone ;  from  this  a  long  tendon  or  cord, 
A,  extends  down  the  leg,  and  in  the  foot  it  divides  into 
branches,  which  go  to  all  the  toes.  When  the  muscle 
pulls  on  this  the  toes  will  all  be  bent,  as  every  body 


CHAKACTEEISTICS    OF   BIRDS.  123 

knows  who  has  played  with  a  fowl's  drum-stick,  pulling 
upon  this  tendon.  Now  this  tendon  can  be  pulled  upon 
in  the  living  animal,  and  the  toes  of  course  be  bent,  with- 
out any  action  of  the  muscle.  For  observe,  that  at  first 
the  tendon  is  on  the  front  of  the  limb,  but  it  passes  to 
the  rear  before  it  comes  to  the  heel-bone.  The  effect  of 
this  arrangement  is,  that  when  the  bird  settles  down  in 
perching,  the  bending  of  the  limb  pulls  on  the  tendon, 
and  so  the  toes  firmly  grasp  the  perch.  This  arrange- 
ment is  also  of  service  to  birds  of  prey  in  securing  their 
victims ;  for,  when  they  have  pounced  upon  them,  by 
merely  settling  down  with  all  their  weight,  the  bent 
claws  grasp  them  with  great  force. 

209.  There  is  very  great  variety  in  the  plumage  of 
birds,  the  gayest  colors  appearing  in  those  of  tropical 
climates ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  birds  of  Arctic 
regions  exhibit  none  but  the  duller  hues.     The  latter, 
howrever,  have  a  much  larger  proportion  of  downy  feath- 
ers to  keep  them  warm  in  the  midst  of  the  severe  cold. 
With  the  bright  and  splendid  colors  of  the  tropical  birds 
there  is  no  power  of  song,  the  voice  being  either  absent 
or  disagreeable ;  but  in  the  temperate  zone,  while  the 
plumage  is  ordinarily  much  less  beautiful,  there  is  great 
variety  of  song,  especially  in  the  small  birds. 

210.  The  tail  is  of  service  in  flight,  being  moved  in 
one  way  and  another,  so  as  to  regulate  the  course  of  the 
bird.     But  it  is  not  its  only  use  to  serve  as  a  rudder ;  it 
is  a  part  of  the  ornament  which  the  Creator  has  given 
to  this  class  of  animals.     Accordingly,  it  is  varied  much 
in  its  shape,  arrangement,  and  color;  and  in  some  cases 
beauty  seems  to  be  aimed  at  rather  than  actual  service, 
as  in  the  tails  of  Peacocks  and  Birds  of  Paradise. 

211.  The  instinct  which  leads  so  many  kinds  of  birds 
to  change  their  climate  according  to  the  season  is  a  won- 
der and  a  mystery.     In  a  temperate  climate  there  is  a 
multitude  of  birds  in  gardens,  fields,  and  forests  in  the 
summer,  which  for  the  most  part  disappear  as  the  cold 


124  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

months  come  on.  They  migrate  to  the  south,  where 
the  warm  weather  will  give  them  the  same  worms  or 
other  food  which  they  can  no  longer  obtain  at  the  north. 
Different  kinds  of  birds  have  each  their  time  for  migra- 
tion, which  can  be  calculated  upon  with  considerable  ac- 
curacy. It  does  not  depend  on  the  degree  of  tempera- 
ture, although  it  is  somewhat  influenced  by  it,  as  birds  go 
north  sooner  when  the  season  is  early  than  when  it  is  late. 
212.  The  most  mysterious  part  of  this  migration  is, 
that  the  same  birds  will  often  return  in  the  following 
season  to  the  same  spot  which  they  left,  although  they 
have  traversed  in  their  migration  hundreds,  and  perhaps 
even  thousands  of  miles.  This  fact  has  been  proved  in 
the  case  of  swallows  by  tying  silken  threads  to  their  feet, 
so  that  there  should  be  no  mistake  as  to  their  identity. 
Spallanzani,  a  celebrated  Italian  physiologist  of  the  last 
century,  saw  the  same  couples  return  to  their  old  nests 
for  eighteen  years  in  succession. 

Questions. — What  are  the  two  grand  divisions  of  warm-blooded 
Vertebrates?  In  what  respects  do  Birds  differ  from  Mammals? 
What  is  said  of  feathers?  What  analogy  does  the  office  of  a  wing 
bear  to  that  of  a  hand  ?  Point  out  the  resemblance  between  them  in 
their  frame- work.  What  is  said  of  the  breast-bone  in  birds  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  muscular  power  required  for  flying  ?  What  of  the  in- 
ability of  man  to  fly?  What  essentially  contributes  to  the  lightness 
of  birds?  Describe  the  digestive  apparatus  of  birds.  How  is  it 
varied  in  different  kinds  of  birds  ?  What  is  said  of  the  crop  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  different  periods  of  incubation  ?  What  is  the  real  agent 
of  the  process  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Ostrich  ?  What  of  the  Mound 
Birds  ?  What  is  said  of  the  nests  of  birds  ?  What  of  the  formation 
of  the  bird  in  the  egg  ?  How  does  it  get  out  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
development  of  the  senses  of  birds  ?  What  of  the  nictitating  mem- 
brane ?  What  of  the  ear  ?  What  is  said  of  the  legs  of  birds  ?  De- 
scribe the  arrangement  of  the  perching  apparatus.  How  is  it  used  in 
taking  prey  ?  What  is  said  of  the  plumage  of  birds  ?  What  of  their 
powers  of  song  ?  What  are  the  two  uses  of  the  tail  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  migration  of  birds  ?  Is  it  only,  or  even  the  chief  object  of  this, 
to  find  a  suitable  temperature  ?  How  much  influence  has  the  weather 
on  migration?  What  is  the  most  wonderful  fact  in  regard  to  it? 


BIKDS    OF   PREY. 


CHAPTER 

BIRDS     OF     PREY. 

213.  THERE  are  about  five  thousand  known  species  of 
birds.    They  are  classified  mostly  according  to  the  form- 
ation of  their  beaks  and  feet,  these  being  parts  which  in- 
dicate the  diet  and  the  habits.     There  are  two  grand  di- 
visions of  Birds — Land  Birds  and  Water  Birds.     Of  the 
Land  Birds  there  are  five  orders :  1.  Raptores  (rapio^  to 
seize),  Birds   of  Prey.     2.  Insessores    (insido,  to   sit), 
Perchers.    3.  Scansores  (scando,to  climb),  Climbers.    4. 
Rasores  (rado,to  scratch),  Scratchers.    5.  Cursores  (cur- 
ro,  to  run),  Runners.     There  are  two  orders  of  "Water 
Birds:  1.  Grallatores  (grallce,  stilts), Waders.     2.  Nata- 
tores  (natator,  a  swimmer),  Swimmers. 

214.  The  Raptores,  or  Raveners,  have  bills  which  are 
stout,  sharp-edged,  and  sharp-pointed.     The  upper  bill, 
or  mandible  (mando,  to  eat),  is  longer  than  the  lower, 
forming  a  pointed  hook  with  which  the  bird  tears  its 
prey.    It  also  has  a  notch  on  each  edge,  which  obviously 
can  render  assistance  in  tearing.    The  legs  are  short  and 
stout,  being  very  muscular,  and  the  feet  have  four  toes 
with  strong  claws  or  talons.    Three  of  these  claws  are  in 

front  and  one  in  the  rear.  In 
Fig.  104  are  represented  the 
beak  and  talons  of  a  bird  of 
prey.  The  strength  of  wing 
of  the  Raptores  is  adapted  to 
their  habits  and  their  modes 

Fig.  104.— Claw  and  Beak  of  a  Bird      of  taking    their    food.       Thus 

the  Eagle,  that  pounces  down 

upon  its  prey,  has  great  strength  and  breadth  of  wing ; 
while  the  Owl,  which  approaches  its  prey  slyly  and  noise- 
lessly, has  comparatively  small  and  feeble  wings. 


126 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


215.  The  Rapt  ores   always  live  in  pairs,  and  they 
choose  their  mates  for  life.     It  is  remarkable,  also,  that 
in  a  large  proportion  of  this  order  the  females  are  larger 
than  the  males,  probably  because  they  have  the  care  of 
the  young  birds,  which  are  at  first  weak  and  blind,  like 
the  young  of  beasts  of  prey  among  Mammals.     The  col- 
ors of  the  plumage  of  this  order  are  generally  dull,  brown- 
ish varied  with  white.     They  have  no  song,  and  utter 
only  hoarse  sounds.    They  construct  their  nests  in  a  rude 
way  in  high  situations,  on  the  ledges  of  rocks,  the  tops  of 
lofty  trees,  etc. 

216.  There  are  three  families  in  this  "order :  1.  The  Fal- 
con family,  including  the  Falcons,  Eagles,  and  Hawks. 
2.  The  Vultures.    3.  The  Owls,  which  are  nocturnal  birds 
of  prey  (nox,  night)',  the  two  first  families  being  diurnal 
(dies,  day). 

217.  The  true  Falcons  are  the  most  daring  of  all  birds 
of  prey.     They  are  very  symmetrical  in  form  and  grace- 
ful in  flight.     The  Gyrfalcon,  Fig.  105,  is  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  the  tribe,  and 
the   largest,  it   being 
nearly  two  feet  long. 
It  is  found  on  the  rocky 
coasts  of  Norway  and 
Iceland.     These  birds 
are  very  courageous  in 
defending  their  young. 
A  pair  of  them  attack- 
ed Dr.  Richardson, 
while    climbing    near 
their  nest,  flying  in  cir- 
cles around  him,  and 
now  and  then  dashing 
at  his  face  with  loud 
screams.    The  Falcons 
were  used  in  the  once 

Fig.  105.— Gyrfalcon.  favorite   sport  of  En- 


BIRDS    OF    PREY.  127 

gland,  called  hawking  or  falconry.  Another  bird  of  this 
tribe,  somewhat  smaller  than  the  Gyrfalcon,  was  common- 
ly used  for  this  purpose.  It  is  the  Peregrine  Falcon, 
found  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  South  America. 
The  boldness  of  this  bird  is  such  that  it  was  employed 
even  in  taking  so  formidable  a  bird  as  the  Heron.  The 
Falcon  was  held  hooded  on  its  master's  hand  until  the 
Heron  was  aroused  from  its  retreat ;  then,  on  being  set 
free,  it  pursued  the  Heron  aloft,  each  bird  striving  to  as- 
cend above  the  other.  The  Falcon  was  always  victorious ; 
and  at  length,  with  a  sweep,  it  pounced  on  its  victim,  and 
both  then  came  to  the  ground  together.  The  part  of  the 
sportsman  was  to  reach  the  place  of  conflict  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  aid  the  Falcon  in  vanquishing  its  prey.  So 
fashionable  was  this  sport  at  one  time  in  England,  that 
persons  of  rank,  when  they  appeared  in  public,  generally 
had  a  hawking-bird  on  the  hand. 

218.  The  true  Falcons  were  formerly  designated  as  no- 
ble birds  of  prey,  on  account  of  their  use  in  falconry,  and 
the  rest  of  the  family  were  termed  ignoble  birds  of  prey. 
The  Eagles  are  the  largest  birds  of  the  latter  class. 
There  are  several  species,  ah1  of  which  have  the  feathers 
extend  down  on  the  legs  even  to  the  talons.  That  mag- 
nificent bird,  the  Golden  Eagle,  is  among  the  most  wide- 
ly diffused  of  all  species  of  Birds,  being  found  on  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe,  in  the  north  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  in  Asia,  and  in  North  America,  from  the  tem-^ 
perate  to  the  arctic  regions.  It  has  ever  been  regarded 
as  an  emblem  of  might  and  courage,  holding,  as  "  king 
of  birds,"  the  same  rank  among  them  as  the  Lion  does 
among  beasts.  With  its  powerful  wings  this  immense 
bird  soars  to  a  great  height,  and  is  a  grand  object  amid 
the  rudeness  and  sublimity  of  the  localities  which  it  fre- 
quents. Its  acute  vision  enables  it  to  see  its  prey  at  a 
great  distance,  and  it  darts  down  upon  it  with  a  sicoop 
or  rush  like  that  of  the  Falcons,  but  more  terrific  and 
overpowering  from  its  greater  size. 


128 


NATURAL   HISTOBY. 


219.  The  nest  of  the  Eagle  is  made  of  sticks,  twigs, 
etc.,  and  is  generally  on  the  ledge  of  some  precipice,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  106.  In  "The  Land  and  the  Book"  of 


Fig.  106.— Eagle  and  Nest. 

0 

Thomson,  he  describes  very  graphically  the  return  of  the 
Eagle  to  its  nest.  After  making  several  gyrations,  it 
poises  for  a  moment,  and  then,  "like  a  bolt,  with  wings 
collapsed,  down  it  comes  head  foremost,  and,  sinking  far 
below  its  eyrie,  it  rounds  to  in  a  grand  parabola,  and 
then,  with  one  or  two  backward  flaps  of  its  huge  pinions, 
like  the  wheels  of  a  steam-boat  reversed,  it  lands  in  safe- 
ty among  its  clamorous  children."  The  food  of  this  bird 
consists  of  sea-birds,  the  smaller  quadrupeds,  as  hares, 
rabbits,  etc.,  and  sometimes  lambs,  sheep,  and  even  larger 


BIRDS    OF    PKEY. 


128 


animals.  In  one  eyrie  in  Germany  were  found  the  skele- 
tons of  three  hundred  ducks  and  forty  hares ;  but  the 
owner  of  the  nest  had  undoubtedly  killed,  besides  these, 
many  sheep,  fawns,  etc.,  which  it  had  stripped  of  their 
flesh,  they  being  too  large  to  be  carried  away  entire  to 
such  a  height. 

220.  The  Osprey,  or  Fishing  Hawk,  Fig.  107,  an  aber- 

rant species  of  Eagle,  is 
spread  over  the  whole  of 
Europe,  a  part  of  Asia, 
and  also  portions  of  North 
America.  As  its  name 
indicates,  it  lives  on  fish, 
which  it  obtains  by  dash- 
ing down  into  the  water. 
Its  nest  is  composed  of 
sticks,  sea -weed,  grass, 
and  turf,  laid  among  the 
branches  of  a  tree.  As  it 
is  repaired  and  added  to 
every  year,  there  is  some- 
times enough  to  make  a 
cart-load.  This  bird,  besides  living  on  fish,  differs  from 
the  true  Eagles  also  in  having  the  legs  covered  with 
scales  instead  of  feathers. 

221.  The  White-headed  or  Bald  Eagle  inhabits  most 
parts  of  North  America.     It  is  the  figure  of  this  Eagle 
which  is  on  the  national  standard  of  this  country.     The 
food  of  tHis  bird  is  various.     While  it  preys  on  such  an- 
imals as  lambs,  pigs,  etc.,  it  will  eat  fish  whenever  it  can 
take  it  from  the  Fishing  Hawk.     If  it  sees  this  bird  rise 
from  the  water  with  a  fish  in  its  talons,  it  starts  off  at 
once  in  the  pursuit.    Wilson  thus  describes  the  struggle 
that  ensues :  "  Each  exerts  his  utmost  to  mount  above 
the  other,  displaying,  in  these  rencounters,  the  most  ele- 
gant and  sublime  aerial  evolutions.     The  unencumbered 
Eagle  rapidly  advances,  and  is  just  on  the  point  of  reach- 

F  2 


Fig.  107.— Osprey. 


130  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ing  his  opponent,  when  with  a  sudden  scream,  probably 
of  despair  and  honest  execration,  the  latter  drops  his  fish. 
The  Eagle,  poising  himself  for  a  moment,  as  if  to  take  a 
more  certain  aim,  descends  like  a  whirlwind,  snatches  it 
in  his  grasp  ere  it  reaches  the  water,  and  bears  his  ill- 
gotten  booty  silently  away  to  the  woods."  Dr.  Franklin 
thus  speaks  of  this  Eagle :  "  For  my  part,  I  wish  the  Bald 
Eagle  had  not  been  chosen  as  the  representative  of  our 
country.  He  is  a  bird  of  bad  moral  character;  he  does 
not  get  his  living  honestly.  You  may  have  seen  him 
perched  upon  some  dead  tree,  where,  too  lazy  to  fish  for 
himself,  he  watches  for  the  labors  of  the  Fishing  Hawk ; 
and  when  that  diligent  bird  has  taken  a  fish,  and  is  bear- 
ing it  to  its  nest  for  the  support  of  his  mate  and  young 
ones,  the  Bald  Eagle  pursues  him,  and  takes  it  from  him. 
With  all  this  injustice,  he  is  never  in  good  case,  but,  like 
those  among  men  who  live  by  sharping  and  robbing,  he 
is  generally  poor,  and  very  often  lousy.  Besides,  he  is  a 
rank  coward ;  the  little  king-bird,  not  bigger  than  a  spar- 
row, attacks  him  boldly  and  drives  him  out  of  the  dis- 
trict. He  is  therefore  by  no  means  a  proper  emblem  for 
the  brave  and  honest  Cincinnati  of  America,  who  have 
driven  out  all  the  king-birds  from  our  country,  though 
exactly  fitted  for  that  order  of  knights  which  the  French 
call  chevaliers  d'industrie" 

222.  The  Secretary  Bird,  Fig.  108  (p.  131),  derives  its 
name  from  the  tufts  of  feathers  at  the  back  of  its  head, 
having  some  resemblance  to  pens  stuck  behind  the  ear. 
It  is  allied  both  to  the  Eagles  and  the  Falcons,  but  its 
exact  place  is  a  subject  of  dispute.  It  inhabits  South 
Africa,  Senegambia,  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  It  lives 
on  snakes  and  reptiles,  which  it  devours  in  great  numbers. 
When  attacking  a  snake,  it  uses  one  wing  as  a  shield, 
striking  the  snake  with  the  other  till  it  is  senseless; 
then,  with  a  blow  with  its  beak,  it  splits  the  snake's 
head,  and  swallows  the  animal.  In  the  crop  of  one  of 
those  birds  there  were  found  eleven  large  lizards,  three 


BIRDS    OF    PKEY.  131 


Fig.  108 — The  Secretary  Bird. 

serpents,  each  a  yard  in  length,  eleven  small  tortoises, 
and  a  great  quantity  of  locusts  and  other  insects. 

223.  The  Hawks  constitute  a  section  of  the  Falcon 
family,  allied  to  the  true  Falcons,  but  having  short  legs 
and  tails.     The  Goshawk,  Fig.  109  (p.  132),  is  the  finest 
bird  of  this  tribe,  distinguished  alike  for  its  large  size, 
its  beautiful  plumage,  and  its  elegant  shape.     It  comes 
nearer  to  the  Falcons  than  any  other  of  the  Hawks. 
When  it  takes  its  prey  it  strikes  its  victim  to  the  ground 
by  the  force  with  which  it  dashes  through  the  air.     Its 
food  consists  of  hares,  squirrels,  pheasants,  and  even  some 
quite  large  birds.     Tfcis  bird  abounds  all  over  the  wood- 
ed portions  of  Europe,  and  a  similar  species  is  found  in 
this  country. 

224.  The  Kites,  another  section  of  the  Falcon  family, 
are  particularly  distinguished  by  their  long  wings  and 
forked  tails.     Their  flight  is  remarkably  easy  and  grace- 
ful, and  they  have  the  power  of  remaining  a  long  time 


132  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Fig.  109.— The  Goshawk. 

poised  almost  without  motion.  They  sweep  through  the 
air  in  wide  circles  with  outspread  wings,  using  the  tail 
as  a  rudder ;  and  they  often  mount  up  so  high  as  to  be- 
come nearly  invisible.  Like  the  Eagles,  therefore,  they 
have  a  wide  range  of  vision  in  searching  for  prey ;  but, 
instead  of  directly  rushing,  like  the  eagles,  upon  their  vic- 
tim, they  skim  it,  as  it  were,  from  the  surface  of  the  earth 
or  the  water,  bearing  it  away  in  their  talons.  Their  prey 
consists  of  moles,  rats,  mice,  young  poultry,  and  small 
reptiles.  They  will  not  refuse  carrion.  Some  species 
perform  the  office  of  scavengers  in  Turkey,  Egypt,  India, 
etc.,  appearing  for  this  purpose  in  large  numbers  in  the 
streets  of  some  of  the  cities.  Kites  performed  this  use- 
ful office  in  London  as  late  as  theHimes  of  Henry  VIII. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  kinds  is  the  Amer- 
ican Swallow-tailed  Kite,  Fig.  110  (p.  133).  It  is  found 
in  South  America,  and  goes  as  far  north  as  40  degrees 
of  latitude .  Its  food  consists  of  insects,  small  snakes, 
lizards,  and  frogs.  It  sweeps  over  the  fields  close  to 
the  ground,  and  sometimes,  seizing  a  snake  by  the  neck, 


BIRDS    OF   PREY. 


133 


Fig.  110.— The  Swallow-tailed  Kite. 

carries  it  off  to  devour  it  in  the  air,  as  represented  in  the 


225.  As  the  Hawks  may 
be  regarded  as  an  inferior 
kind  of  Falcon,  so  the  Buz- 
zards may  be  considered  as 
having  a  similar  relation  to 
the  Eagles.  In  their  flight 
they  have  neither  the  soar 
and  swoop  of  the  Falcons  and 
Eagles,  the  arrow-like  dash 
of  the  Hawks,  nor  the  wind- 
ing sweep  of  the  Kites ;  but 
they  sail  along  easily  and  rap- 
idly in  quest  of  their  prey, 
which  is  much  like  that  of 
the  Kites  and  Hawks.  The 
common  Buzzard,  Fig.  Ill, 


Fig.  111. — The  common  Buzzard. 


134  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

is  found  in  the  wooded  countries  of  Europe,  and  the  bor- 
dering countries  of  Asia,  and  also  in  the  fur  countries 
of  North  America.  There  are  several  other  species  of 
Buzzards  in  this  country. 

226.  We  now  come  to  the  second  great  family  of  the 
Raptores — the  Vultures.     You  have  seen  that  the  birds 
of  the  Falcon  family  have  for  their  office,  in  the  general 
economy  of  nature,  to  keep  within  bounds  the  number 
of  small  birds  and  quadrupeds,  and  that  their  head-quar- 
ters are  chiefly  in  the  cold  and  temperate  regions.     The 
Vulture  tribe,  on  the  other  hand,  have  for  their  office  to 
cleanse  the  earth  from  the  dead  bodies  of  animals  that 
have  died  from  various  causes,  and  their  head-quarters 
are  chiefly  between  the  tropics.     Still,  they  are,  for  the 
most  part,  inhabitants  of 'mountainous  regions,  some  of 
them  dwelling  on  the  confines  of  perpetual  snow.     They 
descend,  however,  to  the  warm  regions  below  in  search , 
of  their  food.     Vultures  devour  bodies  that  Hyenas  and 
Jackals  could  not  reach ;  for  none  but  birds  can  reach 
carcasses  that  are  in  the  midst  of  the  dense  and  tangled 
forests  of  the  tropics,  or  on  the  steep  sides  of  their  Al- 
pine ranges. 

227.  The  distinguishing  characteristic  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Vultures  is  the  absence  of  feathers  on  the 
head  and  neck,  while  round  the  bottom  of  the  latter  there 
is  a  ruff  of  soft  feathers  in  a  loose  fold  of  skin,  within 
which  the  bird  withdraws  its  neck,  and  even  the  greater 
part  of  its  head,  when,  in  a  semi-torpid  state,  as  motionless 
as  a  statue,  it  digests  the  food  with  which  it  has  gorged 
itself.     This  absence  of  feathers  on  the  head  and  neck  is 
an  example  of  adaptation,  for  if  they  were  upon  this  part 
of  the  body  they  would  become  exceedingly  foul  by  con- 
tact with  the  carrion  on  which  the  Vulture  feeds.     The 
whole  plumage  of  this  bird  is  deficient  in  the  neat  and 
regular  appearance  of  that  of  the  Falcon  family,  and  yet 
it  can  not  be  called  a  filthy  animal,  for  it  washes  itself 
often,  and  spreads  out  its  wings  to  the  sun  to  be  dried. 


BIRDS    OP   PREY.  135 

228.  The  Condor  of  the  Andes,  Fig.  112,  is  the  most 
remarkable  of  the  Vultures  in  regard  to  size  and  strength, 


and  the  height  to  which  it  soars.  It  is  about  four  feet 
long,  and  the  expanse  of  its  wings  measures  nine  or  ten 
feet ;  it  is  said  to  have  reached  in  some  cases  even  thir- 
teen feet.  Its  habitual  residence  is  ten  or  fifteen  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  it  is  often  seen 
soaring  much  higher  than  this.  Besides  feeding  on  car- 
rion, it  will  often  attack  lambs  and  young  goats,  and 
when  two  are  together,  they  will  attack  so  formidable  an 
animal  as  the  Llama,  or  even  the  Puma. 

229.  The  bird  commonly  called  the  Turkey  Buzzard 
belongs  to  the  Yulture  family.  It  inhabits  a  great  range 
of  country,  being  found  in  all  the  warmer  parts  of  this 
continent.  It  lives  on  all  sorts  of  food.  It  sucks  the 
eggs  and  devours  the  young  of  many  species  of  birds, 
and  will  even  eat  .the  dead  bodies  of  its  own  species.  It 


136  NATURAL   HISTOEY. 

is  daily  seen  in  the  streets  of  the  southern  cities  acting 
the  part  of  a  scavenger.  I  once  saw  two  of  them,  near 
the  market  in  Charleston,  quarreling  for  the  possession 
of  the  entrails  of  an  animal. 

230.  Some  of  the  Vultures  approach  the  Eagle  in  their 
form  and  habits.  This  is  the  case  with  the  Bearded  Vul- 
ture of  the  Alps,  Fig.  113.  It  has  this  name  from  the 


Fig.  113.— Bearded  Vulture  of  the  Alps. 

long  hair-like  feathers  with  which  each  nostril  is  covered. 
As  in  the  Eagles,  the  head,  neck,  and  legs  are  covered 
with  feathers,  but  in  the  characters  of  the  eye,  beak,  and 
talons  it  is  like  the  Vultures.  Besides  carrion,  it  feeds 
on  the  smaller  quadrupeds  which  it  takes  as  prey.  It  is 
very  bold,  and  when  very  hungry  will  attack  larger  ani- 
mals, and  even  men.  It  is  found  not  only  about  the 
Alps,  but  also  among  the  mountain  ranges  of  Africa  and 
Western  Asia. 

231.  The  Owls  constitute  the  third  family  of  the  Rap- 
tores.  They  are  the  only  birds  of  prey  which  are  noc- 
turnal in  their  habits,  and  all  their  peculiarities  are  adapt- 
ations to  these  habits.  These  I  will  notice.  The  eyes 
are  very  large,  with  widely  opening  pupils,  so  as  to  ad- 


BIRDS    OP   PREY.  137 

mit  a  great  deal  of  light ;  they  are  also  surrounded  with 
a  disk  of  feathers  of  a  light  color,  which  serves  to  direct 
the  light,  striking  it  in  upon  the  eye.  The  nictitating 
membrane  is  very  conspicuous,  it  being  needed  to  shut 
out  some  of  the  light  in  broad  day ;  to  open  its  eyes 
widely  then,  and  without  the  covering  of  this  membrane, 
would  dazzle  the  Owl  exceedingly.  Its  head  is  very 
large  and  round,  which  is  owing  mostly  to  some  cells 
that  are  connected  with  the  organ  of  hearing,  rendering 
that  sense  very  acute ;  this  is  of  essential  service  to  it  in 
taking  its  prey  by  night.  Owls  are  the  only  birds  that 
have  an  external  ear,  §  206.  It  is  covered  by  feathers, 
and  in  some  species  by  a  sort  of  lid,  which  the  bird  can 
open  or  shut  at  pleasure. 

232.  The  plumage  of  the  Owls  is  very  peculiar.     It  is 
downy,  partly  to  keep  them  warm,  but  mostly  to  enable 
them  to  approach  their  prey  noiselessly.     Their  flight  is 
so  noiseless  that  they  seem  borne  along  on  the  air  like 
a  tuft  of  down.     The  food  of  the  larger  species  consists 
of  hares,  rabbits,  fawns,  birds,  etc.,  and  that  of  the  smaller, 
of  mice,  rats,  moles,  small  reptiles,  and  the  larger  insects. 
They  take  these  either  by  night  or  in  the  twilight ;  and 
we  find  this  family  most  abundant  in  those  portions  of 
the  globe  where  the  twilight  is  most  prolonged — the 
cold  and  temperate  regions.     There  are  some  aberrant 
species  in  which  the  habits  are  diurnal  more  than  noc- 
turnal, and,  consequently,  the  characteristics  mentioned 
are  not  fully  developed  in  them.     The  typical  species,  in 
which  the  development  of  these  peculiarities  is  complete, 
scarcely  move  during  the  day.    They  remain  at  rest  upon 
their  perch,  with  eyes  half  closed,  and  an  amusing  air  of 
gravity ;  and  when  aroused  in  any  way  they  do  not  fly 
off,  but  raise  themselves  up,  and  assume  grotesque  atti- 
tudes, making  ludicrous  motions. 

233.  The  Barn  Owl,  Fig.  114  (p.  138),  is  widely  dif- 
fused through  the  temperate  regions  of  Europe  and  this 
country.     It  is  a  very  useful  animal  in  destroying  rats 


138 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


and  mice,  and  its  presence 
about  barns  and  dove-cots 
should  be  encouraged.  It 
conceals  itself  in  the  day- 
time in  old  trees,  in  barn- 
lofts,  etc.,  and  at  night  sal- 
lies forth  in  search  of  its 
prey. 

234.  Of  the  aberrant 
species,  the  Snowy  Owl, 
Fig.  115,  is  one  of  the 
largest.  You  see  that  this 
has  not  the  disk  around 
the  eye  which  the  Barn 
Owl  has,  and  its  shape  is 
much  like  that  of  tjie  Eagle  tribe.  This  bird  is  found  in 
the  northern  regions  of  both  hemispheres.  Its  snowy 


Fig.  114.— The  Barn  Owl. 


Fig.  115.— The  Sncnvy  Owl. 


PERCHING    BIKDS.  139 

white  plumage,  from  which  it  gets  its  name,  makes  it  a 
very  beautiful  animal.  But  its  loud  voice  is  very  terrific 
in  the  cheerless  solitudes  which  it  inhabits.  It  seeks  its 
prey  in  the  daytime,  darting  upon  them  from  above,  and 
seizing  them  with  its  stout  talons,  its  victims  being 
hares,  various  birds,  and  sometimes  fish. 

Questions. — How  many  known  species  of  Birds  are  there  ?  In  what 
way  are  they  classified  ?  What  are  the  two  divisions  of  Birds  ?  What 
are  the  orders  of  Land-birds  ?  What  of  the  Water-birds  ?  Describe 
the  characteristics  of  the  Kaptores.  What  is  said  of  their  habits? 
What  of  their  plumage  ?  Of  their  voice  ?  Into  what  families  is  this 
order  divided  ?  What  is  said  of  the  true  Falcons  ?  What  of  the 
Gyrfalcon  ?  What  of  the  sport  of  Falconry  ?  What  is  the  distinc- 
tion between  noble  and  ignoble  birds  of  prey  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Golden  Eagle  ?  What  of  the  Eagle's  nest  ?  What  of  its  return  to 
it?  What  of  its  food  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Osprey  ?  What  of  the 
Bald  Eagle  ?  What  does  Franklin  say  of  it  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Secretary  Bird  ?  How  do  the  Hawks  differ  from  the  Falcons  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Goshawk  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Kites  ?  What  of  the 
American  Swallow-tailed  Kite?  What  is  said  of  the  Buzzards? 
How  does  the  office  of  the  Vultures  differ  from  that  of  the  Falcon 
family  ?  Where  do  they  live  ?  What  peculiarities  of  appearance  do 
they  present  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Condor  ?  What  of  the  Turkey 
Buzzard  ?  What  of  the  Bearded  Vulture  ?  What  are  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  Owls  ?  What  are  their  habits  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Barn 
Owl  ?  What  of  the  Snowy  Owl  ? 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PERCHING   BIRDS. 

235.  THE  second  order  of  land-birds,  that  of  the  In- 
sessores,  or  Perchers,  is  the  most  numerous  and  varied 
of  all  the  orders.  It  includes  all  the  tribes  living  in 
trees,  with  the  exception  of  the  rapacious  birds  and  the 
climbers.  Other  birds  perch,  but  the  birds  of  this  or- 
der have  their  feet  formed  especially  for  this.  The  toes 
are  three  before  and  one  behind,  the  latter  being  on 
the  same  level  with  the  others.  They  are  slender  and 


140  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

flexible,  with  long  and  slightly-curved  claws.  The  legs 
of  these  birds  are  not  stout,  for  they  are  most  of  the 
time  on  the  wing ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  wings 
and  muscles  are  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  body.  The  plumage  varies  much,  but,  on  the  whole, 
this  order  excels  all  the  others  in  the  beauty  and  variety 
of  its  colors.  The  male  is  commonly  larger  than  the  fe- 
male, and  its  colors  are  usually  more  gay.  The  perchers 
live  hi  pairs,  and  build  their  nests  in  trees  and  bushes 
with  some  few  exceptions,  showing  considerable  skill  in 
their  construction.  The  singing-birds  belong  chiefly  to 
this  order,  the  only  other  singers  being  among  the  Scan- 
sores.  As  the  characteristics  of  birds  are  most  fully  de- 
veloped in  this  order,  it  is  the  typical  order  of  the  class. 
236.  There  is  much  variety  in  the  food  of  the  different 
kinds  of  perching  birds,  and  their  beaks  present  differ- 
ences corresponding  to  the  nature  of  the  food.  Taking 
the  form  of  the  beak  as  the  basis  of  division,  there  are 
four  groups  in  this  order:  1.  Conirostres  (conus,  a  cone, 
and  rostrum,  a  beak),  cone-billed  birds,  or  birds  having  a 
cone-shaped  beak.  The  greater  portion  of  these  are  omniv- 
orous, §  93,  but  some  are  exclusively  granivorous.  The 
Crows  and  Finches  are  examples  of  this  group.  In  Fig. 


Fig.  116.— Bill  of  a  Grosbeak. 


116  is  a  representation  of  a  cone-bill,  the  bill  of  a  Gros- 
beak.   2.  Dentirostres  (dens,  a  tooth,  and  rostrum),  tooth- 


PERCHING   BIKDS. 


141 


billed  birds.  These  have,  as  you  see  in  Fig.  117,  the  head 
of  a  Shrike  or  Butcher-bird,  a  notch  or  tooth  near  the 
extremity  of  the  upper  bill  or  mandible.  This  is  like  the 


Fig.  117.— Head  of  Shrike. 

notch  seen  in  the  upper  mandible  of  birds  of  prey  (§  214) ; 
and  accordingly  we  find  that  those  which  have  this  notch 
well  developed  are  really  birds  of  prey,  living  on  small 
birds  and  reptiles,  as  well  as  the  insects  and  worms  which 
are  the  common  food  of  all  this  group.  The  Shrikes, 
Thrushes,  and  Warblers  are  examples  of  this  division. 
3.  Tenuirostres  (tennis,  thin,  slender,  and  rostrum),  slen- 
der-billed birds.  These  slender  bills  are  specially  fitted 
either  for  sucking  up  vegetable  juices  or  for  picking  up 
insects,  ^he  Humming-birds  are  the  typical  birds  of 
this  group.  4.  Fissirosires  (fissura,  a  slit,  and  rostrum), 
gaping -billed  birds.  The  bills  or  mandibles  are  very 
broad  and  flat  toward  their  base,  and  the  slit  or  fissure 
between  them  is  carried  far  back  under  the  eye.  This 
arrangement  gives  them,  when  the  mandibles  are  moved 
apart,  a  very  broad  and  widely-opened  mouth,  as  seen  in 
the  Goatsucker,  Fig.  118  (p.  142).  This,  you  see,  is  strong- 
ly in  contrast  with  Fig.  116.  The  purpose  of  this  conform- 
ation is  to  allow  these  birds  to  take  insects  on  the  wing, 


142  NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  118 Goatsucker. 

which  they  do,  passing  rapidly  through  the  air  with  open 
mouth,  as  in  the  representation  of  the  Goatsucker.  The 
Swallows  and  Kingfishers  belong  to  this  group. 

I  now  go  on  to  notice  these  groups,  giving  some  few 
specimens  of  each. 

237.  The  principal  food  of  most  of  the  Cone -"billed 
Perchers  consists  of  seeds  and  grains.     Hence  the  need 
of  the  stout  cone-shaped  beak  to  pick  out  the  seeds  and 
to  crush  them.     The  chief  families  of  this  group  are  the 
Finches,  Crows,  Starlings,  Birds  of  Paradise,  Cross-bills, 
and  Horn-bills.    Most  of  these  birds  are  more"  or  less  do- 
mesticable, and  some  of  them  are  capable  of  considerable 
education. 

238.  The  Finches  are  a  very  extensive  family,  inclucl 
ing  the  Larks,  Sparrows,  Grosbeaks,  Buntings,  Linnets, 
etc.     None  of  them  are  of  large  size,  and  some  of  them 
are  very  small.     They  have  a  marked  general  resem 
blance  to  each  other  in  appearance  and  habits.     They 
tenant  fields,  groves,  hedgerows,  and  woodlands,  feeding 
chiefly  on  grains  and  seeds,  and  occasionally  upon  in- 
sects.    Many  of  them  are  great  songsters.     They  are 


PERCHING   BIRDS.  143 

commonly  hardy  birds,  and  their  distribution  is  almost 
universal,  some  species  of  them  being  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  globe  where  animals  can  live.  They  are  charac- 
terized by  short  and  thick  beaks,  and  the  two  mandibles 
fit  each  other  so  well  that,  when  they  are  together,  the 
beak  looks  like  a  short  cone,  with  a  mere  slit  from  the 
point  to  the  base,  as  seen  in  Fig.  116.  The  great  strength 
seen  in  the  beaks  of  these  birds  is  needed  in  opening  the 
woody  capsules  covering  the  seeds  which  constitute  a 
portion  of  their  food. 

239.  I  can  notice  but  a  few  of  this  family.  There  are 
many  of  the  Grosbeaks  in  this  country,  but  the  most 
beautiful  and  famous  of  them  is  the  Cardinal  Grosbeak, 
or  Redbird.  It  is  not  only  splendid  in  its  colors,  but  in 
its  song  also.  It  is  one  of  the  prominent  birds  of  the 
Middle  and  Southern  States,  and  some  stragglers  get  as 
far  north  as  New  England.  The  American  Goldfinch,  or 
Yellow-bird,  one  of  the  finest  of  the  Finch  family,  lives  on 
the  seeds  of  hemp,  the  sunflower,  and  the  thistle.  From 
its  fondness  for  the  seeds  of  the  latter  it  is  often  called 
the  Thistlefinch.  This  bird  can  be  educated  to  do  many 
things,  as  drawing  its  drink  from  a  glass.  The  Sparrows 
are  an  interesting  group  in  this  family.  There  are  many 
species,  but  the  two  most  common  in  this  country  are  the 
Song  Sparrow,  one  of  the  earliest  warblers  of  the  spring, 
and  the  Chipping-bird,  so  familiar  to  every  one.  There 
is  a  browrt  Sparrow  very  much  like  the  Chipping  Spar- 
row, but  a  more  shy  bird,  brighter  in  color,  and  having  a 
longer  tail.  Just  before  migrating  in  the  autumn  to  the 
south,  these  birds,  losing  their  shyness,  come  nearer  to 
the  habitations  of  men,  and  are  seen  flitting  about  in  little 
flocks.  The  common  Snowbird  is  one  of  the  Finches. 
This  hardy  and  numerous  species,  common  to  both  con- 
tinents, comes  from  the  north  in  flocks  into  the  United 
States  in  October  and  November,  on  their  way  south. 
The  Bobolink,  or  Ricebird,  as  it  is  called  as  it  goes 
south,  is  also  one  of  this  family. 


144  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

240.  The  birds  of  the  Crow  family  are  among  the  lar- 
gest of  the  Perchers.     They  are  bold  but  crafty  birds, 
showing  considerable  intelligence,  and,  when  domestica- 
ted, have  powers  of  imitation  similar  to  those  of  the  Par- 
rot.   They  li ve  in  societies.     The  largest  of  the  family  is 
the  Raven,  well  known  in  a  great  range  of  climate  in 
both  hemispheres.    It  has  a  solemn  look,  and  has  always 
been  deemed  a  bird  of  ill  omen.     The  Rook,  so  common 
in  England,  is  nearly  like  the  common  Crow  of  this  coun- 
try.    Of  both  it  may  be  said  that  the  good  which  they 
do  in  destroying  grubs,  which  are  injurious  to  vegetation, 
more  than  compensates  for  the  harm  which  they  do  in 
pulling  up  the  young  corn  or  potato  cuttings.    The  Jays 
are  of  the  Crow  family.    The  most  beautiful  of  these  is 
the  Blue  Jay  of  this  country.     This  bird  has  a  great  an- 
tipathy to  Owls,  and  when  it  discovers  one,  it  rouses,  by 
its  boisterous  vociferations,  a  noisy  troop  of  birds  of  va- 
rious kinds.    The  Owl  receives  all  this  with  a  quiet  grav- 
ity, and,  watching  his  opportunity,  at  length,  on  noiseless 
wing,  slips  away  from  his  annoying  company. 

241.  The  birds  of  the  Starling  family  are  in  form  and 
habits  quite  like  the  Crow  family  ^  but  are  much  smaller. 
The  Meadow  Lark  of  this  country  is  one  of  them.     The 
Baltimore  Oriole,  one  of  a  numerous  group  in  this  family, 
is  a  very  interesting  and  beautiful  bird.     It  is  called  by 
various  names :  the  Golden  Oriole,  Golden  Robin,  Fire- 
bird, and  Fire  Hangbird.    Of  this  last  name  the  first  part 
was  suggested  by  its  bright  orange  color  flashing  in  the 
light,  and  the  latter  part  comes  from  its  hanging  nest, 
which  is  woven  from  hemp  or  flax.     To  this  family  be- 
longs that  singular  bird  of  Australia,  the  Bower-bird,  Fig. 
119  (p.  145).     This  bird  builds  a  bower  of  twigs,  inter- 
woven so  as  to  meet  above,  forming  a  sort  of  tunnel. 
The  entrance  to  this  is  decorated  with  any  brilliant  arti- 
cle that  the  bird  can  find,  as  shells  and  feathers.     No 
other  use  has  been  discovered  for  this  bower  but  that  of 
a  play-ground,  the  birds  being  seen  to  run  through  and 


PERCHING    BIRDS. 


145 


Fig  119.— Bower-bird. 


around  it  in  a  sport- 
ive manner. 

242.  The  bills  of 
the  Birds  of  Paradise 
are  so  long  and  slen- 
der that  some  nat- 
uralists have  placed 
\  this  family  among 
the  Tenuirostres. 
They  are  confined  to 
New  Guinea  and  the 
neighboring  islands. 
They  are  distinguish- 
ed for  their  remarka- 
ble plumes,  which  are 
of  different  kinds  in 
the  various  species, 
usually  consisting  of 


Fig.  120 — Bird  of  Paradise. 

G 


146 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


feathers  prolonged  from  the  shoulder-tufts  or  from  the 
tail.  In  the  species  in  Fig.  1 20  (p.  1 45)  there  is  a  most  bril- 
liant display  of  colors.  The  body,  breast,  and  lower  parts 
are  of  a  deep  rich  brown ;  the  front  set  close  with  black 
feathers  shot  with  green ;  the  throat  is  of  a  rich  golden 
green ;  the  head  yellow ;  the  sides  of  the  tail  have  a  long, 
full,  splendid  plume  of  downy  feathers  of  a  soft  yellow 
color.  The  poetical  story  that  this  bird  lives  on  dew,  is, 
of  course,  false,  and  its  food  consists  of  grasshoppers  and 
other  insects,  together  with  seeds  and  figs. 

243.  The  Cross-bill  family  are  distinguished  by  the 
crossing  of  the  points  of  the  beakj  as  seen  in  Fig.  121, 

and  a  horny  scoop  at  the 
tip  of  the  tongue.  The  bird 
uses  these  tools  in  obtain- 
ing the  seeds  of  the  fir  and 
pine  cones,  on  which  it  lives. 
The  process  is  this :  the 
points  of  the  closed  beak 
are  insinuated  beneath  the 
scales  of  the  cone,  and  then, 
by  a  sidewise  motion  of  the 
mandibles,  separating  the 
points  farther  from  each 
other,  the  scale  is  raised,  so 
as  to  allow  the  horny  scoop 
of  the  tongue  to  dislodge  the  seed  and  carry  it  into  the 
mouth.  It  can  also,  with  its  powerful  beak,  extract  ker- 
nels from  hard  shells.  It  will  cut  an  apple  in  two  to  get 
at  the  pips.  When  confined  in  a  cage,  it  very  dexterous- 
ly draws  the  ends  of  the  wires  from  the  wood- work,  and 
soon  sets  itself  free.  There  are  three  species  of  Cross- 
bills in  this  country. 

244.  The  Horn-bill  family  are  remarkable  for  the  very 
large  size  of  the  beak,  and  for  an  extraordinary  protuber- 
ance with  which  it  is  surmounted,  as  seen  in  the  Rhinoc- 
eros Horn -bill,  Fig.  122  (p.  147).     This  enormous  bill, 


Fig.  121.— Cross-bill. 


PERCHING    BIKDS. 


147 


Fig.  122.— Rhinoceros  Horn-bill. 

with  its  appendage,  is  not  as  heavy  as  it  appears,  for  its 
structure  is  of  a  light,  honeycomb  character.  The  upper 
protuberance  is  hollow,  and  it  is  supposed  that  it  serves 
as  a  sort  of  sounding-board,  to  give  by  its  reverberations 
force  to  the  roaring  cry  of  the  bird.  There  are  several 
species  found  in  India  and  Africa. 

245.  Of  the  division  of  the  Perchers  called  Dentiros- 
tres,  or  Tooth-billed,  there  are  five  families :  the  Shrikes, 
or  Butcher-birds,  Warblers,  Thrushes,  Fly-catchers,  and 
Chatterers  or  Waxwings.  The  notch  in  the  upper  man- 
dible which  makes  the  tooth-like  projection,  §  234,  is  not 
always  deep,  and  is  sometimes  wanting.  In  such  a  case 
the  proper  place  of  the  bird  in  the  classification  is  known 
by  its  resemblance  in  other  respects  to  the  true  tooth- 
billed  species.  There  are  some,  indeed,  whose  charac- 
teristics are  so  intermediate  between  the  Conirostres 
and  the  Dentirostres,  that  zoologists  differ  as  to  the 


148  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

group  to  which  they  properly  belong.  The  Shrikes,  or 
Butcher-birds,  are  the  typical  family  of  the  Dentirostral 
group,  having  the  tooth-like  projection  very  prominent, 
as  seen  in  Fig.  117.  They  may  be  styled  the  Raveners 
of  the  order  of  Perchers.  In  their  habits  they  resemble 
the  Raptorial  birds.  They  sit  motionless  on  their  perch 
watching  for  their  prey,  which  consists  of  small  birds, 
quadrupeds,  and  reptiles,  and  'the  larger  insects,  such  as 
grasshoppers.  It  is  by  a  sudden  darting  movement  that 
they  take  their  prey.  Many  of  them  have  the  curious 
habit  of  impaling  their  victims  upon  thorns,  showing  how 
appropriate  is  their  name ;  and  they  sometimes  do  this  to 
so  many  more  than  they  need  for  themselves,  that  some 
are  left  to  dry  and  decay  in  this  position.  Mr.  Nuttal 
says  of  the  American  Shrike  that  it  has  great  powers  of 
imitation,  which  it  uses  sometimes  to  decoy  other  birds 
into  a  near  approach,  so  that  it  may  make  them  its  vic- 
tims. Its  murderous  propensity  is  very  strong.  One 
of  them,  it  is  related  by  Mr.  J.  Brown,  of  Cambridge,  at- 
tacked a  cage  in  a  window  containing  two  Canaries.  In 
its  fright  one  of  the  little  birds  put  its  head  through  the 
bars,  which  was  snapped  off  by  the  Butcher-bird,  leaving 
the  dead  body  in  the  bottom  of  the  cage.  The  next  day, 
when  the  cage  was  in  the  room,  this  bold  murderer  en- 
tered for  another  attack,  but  was  driven  off. 

246.  The  family  of  Warblers  consists  of  small  birds 
having  rather  long  and  slender  bills,  with  the  tip  slight- 
ly curved  and  notched.  It  contains  a  large  proportion 
of  those  species  which  are  most  remarkable  for  their 
powers  of  song.  Among  them  are  the  Bluebird  and 
Chickadee  of  this  country,  and  the  Nightingale  of  Eu- 
rope. Of  this  last  Izaak  Walton  thus  quaintly  speaks : 
"But  the  Nightingale,  another  of  my  airy  creatures, 
breathes  such  sweet,  loud  music  out  of  her  instrumental 
throat,  that  it  might  make  mankind  to  think  that  mira- 
cles are  not  ceased.  He  that  at  midnight,  when  the  very 
laborer  sleeps  securely,  should  hear,  as  I  have  very  often, 


PERCHING    BIRDS.  149 

the  clear  airs,  the  sweet  descents,  the  natural  rising  and 
falling,  the  doubling  and  redoubling  of  her  voice,  might 
well  be  lifted  above  earth,  and  say,  Lord,  what  music 
hast  thou  provided  for  the  saints  in  heaven,  when  thou 
affordest  bad  men  such  music  on  earth !"  Mr.  Wood  re- 
marks of  the  song  of  this  bird,  "  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  not  only  in  this  bird,  but  in  other  singing 
birds,  the  male  is  the  vocalist,  so  that  Milton's  address 
to  the  '  sweet  songstress1  is,  unfortunately,  not  quite  so 
correct  as  poetical ;  a  misfortune  of  frequent  occurrence." 
24V.  The  Warblers  are  spread  over  almost  the  entire 
globe.  Audubon  reckons  forty-four  species  on  the  Amer- 
can  continent.  Their  great  office  seems  to  be  to  prevent 
the  too  great  increase  of  the  insects  which  are  found  on 
twigs  and  leaves,  in  buds  and  flowers,  and  in  the  crevices 
of  trees,  their  bills  being  well  adapted  for  their  capture. 
They  are  generally  migratory  birds,  going  south  in  the 
autumn,  when  the  insects  disappear,  and  coming  north 
again  in  spring,  when  their  natural  prey,  awakened  to 
activity,  come  forth  from  their  winter-quarters. 

Questions. — What  does  the  order  of  Insessores  include?  What 
are  the  characteristics  and  habits  of  birds  of  this  order  ?  Give  the 
three  groups  of  Perchers,  and  their  chief  characteristics.  What  is 
the  food  of  the  Cone-billed  group?  What  families  does  it  include? 
What  birds  does  the  Finch  family  contain  ?  What  are  their  charac- 
teristics and  habits  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Grosbeaks  ?  Of  the  Yel- 
low-bird ?  Of  the  Sparrows  ?  What  other  birds  are  mentioned  as 
belonging  to  this  family  ?  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Crow 
family  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Blue  Jay  ?  What  of  the  Starling  fam- 
ily ?  What  of  the  Baltimore  Oriole  ?  Of  the  Bower-bird  ?  Of  the 
Birds  of  Paradise?  What  is  said  of  the  Cross-bill  family?  What 
of  the  Horn-bill  family  ?  What  are  the  families  in  the  division  of 
Dentirostres  ?  What  is  said  of  the  notched  bill  as  a  distinguishing 
characteristic  ?  What  birds  form  the  typical  family  of  this  group  ? 
What  are  their  habits  ?  What  is  said  of  the  American  Shrike  ?  How 
are  the  Warblers  characterized  ?  Mention  some  of  them.  What  is 
said  of  the  Nightingale  ?  What  is  said  of  the  distribution  of  the 
Warblers  ?  What  of  their  office  ? 


150  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

PERCHING  BIRDS — continued. 

I  NOW  go  on  to  consider  the  remaining  families  of  the 
Dentirostral  group  of  the  Perchers. 

248.  The  Thrushes  form  a  very  numerous  and  diversi- 
fied family.     They  are  almost  universally  distributed,  ap- 
pearing in  nearly  every  variety  of  climate.     Besides  the 
insects  on  which  they  live  in  common  with  the  Warblers, 
they  eat,  also,  snails,  earthworms,  and  various  berries. 
They  are  generally  larger  than  the  Warblers.     Many  of 
them  are  celebrated  songsters.    The  American  Mocking- 
bird is  one  of  the  most  prominent.     This  bird  is  very 
abundant  in  the  warmer  portions  of  the  United  States, 
and  is  found  also  in  the  northern  portions  of  South 
America;  it  is  sometimes  found  as  far  north  as  Rhode 
Island,  but  not  far  inland.     Like  the  Nightingale  of  Eu- 
rope, it  has  a  dull  plumage,  but  it  is  graceful  in  form, 
and  with  its  animated,  active  air  while  singing,  has  then 
considerable  beauty.    Its  natural  notes  are  very  fine, 
and  it  has  powers  of  imitation  surpassing  in  variety  every 
other  bird.     It  seems  to  take  special  delight  in  abrupt 
transitions  among  sounds  that  are  totally  unlike,  passing, 
for  example,  from  the  creaking  of  a  wheelbarrow,  or  the 
sound  of  a  saw,  to  the  sweet  song  of  a  Canary. 

249.  To  this  family  belongs  the  American  Robin.   This 
bird  is  very  widely  diffused  in  this  country,  being  found 
in  Oregon,  and  even  at  Nootka  Sound.     It  is  a  very  fa- 
miliar bird,  and  a  favorite  one,  partly  because  it  comes 
so  early  hi  the  spring,  and  is  so  late  in  emigrating  south, 
and  partly  from  its  having  the  same  name  with  the  Eu- 
ropean Redbreast,  in  whose  praise  there  has  always  so 
much  been  said,  both  in  prose  and  poetry.     The  two 


PEECHING   BIRDS.  151 

must  not  be  confounded ;  the  European  bird  belongs  to 
a  different  family,  the  Warblers ;  it  is  smaller,  and  has 
greater  compass  and  variety  of  song.  The  American 
Robin,  however,  can  be  educated  to  imitate  various 
birds,  and  even  to  sing  tunes,  and  it  is  amusing  to  hear 
it  pipe  out  so  solemn  a  strain  as  that  of  Old  Hundred. 
The  European  bird  is  much  more  familiar  than  our  Robin, 
sometimes,  in  winter,  tapping  at  the  window,  or  even 
entering  the  house  in  search  of  crumbs. 

250.  One  of  the  most  singular  of  the  Thrushes  is  the 
Dipper,  or  Water  Ousel,  Fig.  123.     This  is  found  in  En- 


Fig.  123.— The  Water  Ousel. 

gland,  and  also  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  chiefly  in 
hilly  places  where  there  are  clear  and  rapid  streams.  It 
is  a  great  diver,  and  has  the  habit  of  dipping  and  rising 
many  times  in  succession,  which  gives  it  its  name.  There 
is  an  American  Dipper,  almost  the  counterpart  of  the 
European  one ;  it  is  found  in  the  western  part  of  North 
America.  It  is  very  fully  described  by  Nuttal,  who  says 
that  it  flits  about  our  streams  with  gravelly  beds,  occa- 
sionally diving  for  its  prey,  and  that  "  in  the  very  depths 
of  winter  and  in  early  spring  it  contributes  to  cheer  its 
wild  and  dreary  haunts  by  its  simple,  clear,  and  sweetly- 
warbled  notes,  somewhat  resembling  those  of  the  young 
Song-thrush." 

251.  There  are  many  birds  of  this  family  that  it  would 


152  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

be  interesting  to  notice,  but  I  will  speak  of  only  two  or 
three  more.  The  Catbird,  so  familiar  to  us,  is  a  beauti- 
ful singer,  but  when  provoked  or  alarmed,  utters  a  disa- 
greeable mewing  sound,  from  which  it  gets  its  name. 
The  Brown  Thrush,  or  Thrasher,  is  a  songster  of  great 
sweetness  and  compass.  So  also  is  the  European  Black- 
bird. This  must  not  be  confounded  with  our  common 
American  Blackbird,  which  belongs  to  the  Crow  family. 
252.  The  family  of  Fly-catchers  is  comparatively  a 
small  one  in  regard  to  the  number  of  its  species,  but  it 
is  quite  widely  diffused.  They  derive  their  name  from 
their  skill  in  catching  insects  as  they  fly.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  bill  is  quite  broad  at  the  base,  so  that  when  the 
mandibles  are  separated,  the  mouth  presents  a  wide 
opening.  In  this  respect  they  approach  the  division  of 
Fissirostres,  §  236.  Like  them,  also,  they  have  bristles 
about  the  mouth  at  the  sides ;  and  their  legs  are  small 
and  weak,  as:  they  are  mostly  on  the  wing.  The  most 
prominent  of  this  family  in  this  country  is  the  Kingbird, 
one  of  the  most  bold  and  brave  of  all  birds.  Its  dispo- 
sition to  drive  off  all  other  birds  from  the  neighborhood 
of  its  nest,  and  keep  sole  possession  of  what  it  considers 
its  own  domains,  has  given  this  bird  its  name.  It  will 
attack  even  such  large  birds  as  Crows,  Hawks,  and 
Eagles,  mounting  above  them,  and  darting  down  upon 
their  backs,  and  by  this  continual  annoyance  will  succeed 
in  driving  them  off.  It  will  sometimes  pursue  one  of 
these  birds  a  long  distance,  over  a  mile,  and  then  return 
to  the  neighborhood  of  its  nest  with  the  proud  air  of  a 
conqueror,  uttering  rapidly  its  shrill  and  triumphant 
notes.  I  have  sometimes  been  amused  with  the  boldness 
of  this  bird  in  flying  in  quick  darts  close  to  my  head  as 
I  approached  the  tree  where  it  had  built  its  nest.  Some 
of  the  birds  manage,  by  agility  or  some  cunning  expe- 
dient, to  escape  the  attacks  of  this  tyrant.  "  I  have 
seen,"  says  Wilson,  "  the  Red-headed  Woodpecker,  while 
clinging  on  the  rail  of  a  fence,  amuse  himself  with  the 


violence  of  the  Kingbird,  and  play 


PERCHING   BIRDS.   |Lj  jj  J  y  £  ^g  J  *] 

'v' 


around  the  rail,  while  the  latter, 

every  attempt,  as  he  swept  from  side  to 

him,  but  in  vain."     The  Phebe-bird,  which  utters  its 

pe-wee  so  continuously,  is  one  of  this  family.     There  are 

eight  species  of  Fly-catchers  called  Greenlets,  which  are 

familiar  to  this  country.     Their  principal  colors  are  vari- 

ous shades  of  green.     One  of  them,  from  using  bits  of 

newspaper  in  making  its  nest,  is  sometimes  called  Poli- 

tician. 

253.  The  species  of  the  family  of  Chatterers,  or  Wax- 
wings,  are  few.  The  Bohemian  Waxwing,  Fig.  124,  is 
diffused  over  Europe,  and  ap- 
pears in  England,  so  that  'its 
local  name,  accidentally  given 
it,  is  not  appropriate.  With 
its  silken  tuft  of  feathers  on  its 
head,  and  the  general  silken 
appearance  of  its  plumage,  it 
is  a  beautiful  bird,  but  its  song 
is  weak,  as  is  that  of  all  the 
Chatterers.  There  is  a  corre- 
sponding species  pervading 
North  and  a  part  of  South 
America,  commonly  called  the 
Cedar-bird,  or  Cherry-bird.  At 
the  approach  of  winter  the  Ce- 
dar-birds leave  the  far  north 
in  companies  of  from  twenty 
to  a  hundred,  and  go  as  far  south  as  the  confines  of  the 
equator.  They  reappear  in  the  Northern  and  Eastern 
States  in  April,  before  the  cherries  and  mulberries,  their 
favorite  fruits,  ripen.  Although  they  eat  these  fruits,  they 
more  than  repay  us  by  devouring  quantities  of  canker- 
worms  and  other  destructive  insects.  The  Waxwings 
have  their  name  from  a  peculiar  ornament  on  their 
wings.  Some  of  the  feathers  have  appendages  resem- 
G  2 


Fig.  124.— Bohemian  Waxwing. 


154 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


bling  red  sealing-wax  in  color.    The  wing  is  represented 
in  Fig.  125. 


Fig.  125.— Wing  of  Wax  wing. 

254.  The  third  division  of  the  Perchers  is  that  of  the 
Fissirostres.     The  characteristics  of  this  tribe  were  men- 
tioned in  §  236.     These,  as  you  have  seen,  appeared  to 
some  extent  in  some  of  the  Dentirostres,  especially  the 
family  of  Fly-catchers.     The  adaptation   of  the  wide, 
gaping  mouth,  with  its  bristles  at  the  sides,  to  the  cap- 
ture of  insects  in  flight,  is  obvious.     Some  of  the  larger 
species  of  this  tribe,  however,  live  on  fish.    There  are 
six  families — the  Goatsuckers,  the  Swallows,  the  Todies, 
the  Trogons,  the  Kingfishers,  and  the  Bee-eaters. 

255.  The  Goatsuckers,  of  which  you  have  an  example 
in  Fig.  118,  are  for  the  most  part  nocturnal,  and  they 
have  the  soft  plumage  and  dull  colors  so  characteristic 
of  those  nocturnal  birds  of  prey,  the  Owls.     They  sally 
forth  in  the  evening  when  the  Fly-catchers  and  Swallows 
have  retired  to  rest,  and,  like  the  Bats,  skim  about  in  the 
air,  mostly  near  the  ground.     But  while  the  Bats  capture 
such  hard-cased  insects  as  beetles,  the  Goatsuckers  take 
into  their  gaping  mouths  the  soft-bodied  moths.     When 
these  are  once  in  the  mouth  they  can  not  escape,  for  the 
bristles  fence  them  in,  and  the  thick  saliva  which  is  there 
envelops  them.     The  foot  of  this  bird  is  curiously  con- 
structed.    The  hind  toe,  as  in  the  Owls,  can  be  brought 


PERCHING   BIRDS. 


155 


forward,  and  the  claw  of  the  longest  anterior  toe  has  a 
long,  comb-like  projection,  as  seen  in  Fig.  126.     The  use 


Fig.  126.— Foot  of  European  Goatsucker. 

of  this  is  not  ascertained.  There  is  but  one  species  of 
this  family  known  in  Great  Britain,  and  this  appears  in 
all  parts  of  Europe.  There  are  several  species  in  this 
country,  one  of  them  being  the  Whippoorwill  and  anoth- 
er the  Night-hawk.  They  all  have  the  mottled  colors  and 
large  dark  eyes  which  are  so  characteristic  of  night  birds.. 
256.  The  Swallows  are  characterized  by  great  power 
of  wing,  wide  mouths,  and  short  legs.  The  plumage  of 
their  bodies  is  firm  and  close,  their  wing  feathers  are 
long,  stiff,  and  pointed,  and  their  tails  are  long  and  fork- 
ed, all  which  are  adapted  to  great  speed.  The  Swift, 
Fig.  127,  called  "Jack  Screamer,"  is  the  largest  of  Brit- 
ish Swallows.  It  spends  most  of  the  day  on  the  wing, 


Fig.  127.—  The  Swift 


156  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

wheeling  with  wonderful  velocity,  occasionally  soaring 
very  high,  and  uttering  its  shrill  screams.  It  captures 
great  quantities  of  insects  to  give  to  its  young,  retaining 
them  in  a  kind  of  pouch  under  the  tongue.  Our  Chim- 
ney Swallow  is  one  of  the  Swifts.  It  is  a  social  bird,  ap- 
pearing in  flocks,  and  making  its  nest  in  tall  hollow 
trees  or  in  unused  chimneys.  It  is  amusing  to  see  them 
go  into  a  chimney.  The  flock  wheels  round  and  round, 
and  as  they  come  down  near  the  chimney  those  that  are 
lowest  drop  in  at  each  turn  till  the  whole  have  descend- 
ed. The  Bank  Swallow,  or  Sand  Martin,  which  we  see 
so  often  making  holes  in  sand-banks  with  its  awl-shaped 
bill,  has  its  counterpart  in  Europe.  The  Martins,  which 
so  familiarly  inhabit  the  boxes  set  up  for  them  by  man, 
are  Swallows.  Appearing  in  the  extreme  south  of  the 
United  States  the  first  part  of  February,  they  arrive  in 
New  England  the  latter  part  of  April,  and  in  May  they 
are  seen  as  far  north  as  Hudson's  Bay.  They  begin  to 
emigrate  from  thence  southward  in  August.* 

257.  The  Todies  are  birds  of  gaudy  plumage  and  rapid 
flight,  restricted  almost  entirely  to  tropical  regions. 

*  There  is  one  species  of  Swallow  which  furnishes  a  singular  arti- 
cle of  diet,  highly  prized  by  the  Chinese.  This  article  is  the  nest  of 
the  bird.  The  chief  material  of  which  the  nest  is  composed  has  been 
a  subject  of  much  dispute,  some  supposing  it  to  be  a  kind  of  sea- weed, 
and  others  a  substance  derived  from  the  spawn  of  fishes.  "  It  is  now 
ascertained,"  says  Carpenter,  "that  this  substance  is  secreted  by  enor- 
mously developed  salivary  glands ;  a  few  fragments  of  grass,  hair,  and 
other  substances  are  generally  mixed  with  it.  The  purest  nests  con- 
sist almost  entirely  of  gelatinous  matter,  which,  dissolving  readily  in 
water,  is  employed  in  making  rich  soups  and  gravies.  The  collecting 
of  these  nests  is  a  proceeding  of  great  danger;  but  a  large  number  of 
persons  are  employed  in  it,  as  may  be  judged  from  the  quantity  sent 
to  China.  About  27,000  Ibs.  are  annually  transmitted  from  Java, 
and  these  are  of  the  best  quality.  A  still  greater  quantity  is  obtained 
from  the  Suluk  Archipelago,  and  much,  also,  from  Ceylon  and  New 
Guinea.  It  is  calculated  that  about  30,000  tons  of  Chinese  shipping 
are  engaged  in  the  traffic,  and  that  the  value  of  their  freights  is  above 
£280,000." 


PERCHING   BIRDS. 


157 


258.  The  Trogons  have  great  brilliancy  of  plumage, 
the  usual  tint  being  a  golden  green,  contrasted  boldly 
with  scarlet,  black,  and  brown.  They  are  found  in  the 
tropical  parts  of  Asia  and  America.  The  Resplendent 
Trogon  of  Mexico,  Fig.  128,  is  the  most  gorgeous  of  all 


Fig.  128.— Resplendent  Trogon. 

of  them,  its  whole  upper  surface  being  of  the  richest 
metallic  golden  green,  the  breast  and  under  parts  of  a 
bright  crimson,  and  the  tail  being  covered  by  long,  soft 
plumes  of  various  colors.  These  plumes  were  used  by 
the  ancient  Mexican  nobles  as  ornaments  for  their  head- 
dresses. 

259.  The  Kingfishers  feed  upon  fish,  which  they  take  by 
diving.  There  is  but  one  species  in  this  country.  There 
is  a  species  in  Europe  of  a  similar  character,  but  with 
brighter  hues.  It  is  described  as  being  exceedingly  beau- 
tiful, as,  with  the  metallic  glitter  of  its  plumage,  it  glides 
along  the  bank  of  a  river,  or  darts  into  the  water.  Of 


158 


NATUEAL   HISTORY. 


the  Bee-eaters  there  are  none  in  this  country.  There  is 
a  considerable  number  of  species  in  Africa,  Asia,  and 
Australia. 

260.  The  Tenuirostres  have  long  slender  bills,  intend- 
ed either  for  collecting  the  honey  in  the  nectaries  of  flow- 
ers, or  for  the  capture  of  small  insects,  of  which,  when- 
ever we  examine  flowers,  we  see  so  many  in  and  around 
them.     Their  wings  are  commonly  long,  but  the  feet  are 
slender,  showing  that  they  are  to  be  mostly  on  the  wing. 
They  are,  for  the  most  part,  small  and  of  delicate  form, 
and  have  great  variety  and  brilliancy  of  plumage.    They 
are  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  torrid  zone.     There 
are  five  families  :  the  Humming-birds,  Sunbirds,  Honey- 
suckers,  Hoopoes,  and  Creepers. 

261.  The  Humming-birds,  of  which  there  are  three 
hundred  species,  are  exclusively  confined  to  America. 
All  but  two  or  three  are  tropical  birds.     They  are  the 
smallest  and  most  brilliantly  colored  of  the  feathered  race. 
Their  variety  of  shape  may  be  judged  of  by  the  few  spe- 


Fig.  129 Humming-birds. 


PERCHING   BIRDS. 


159 


cies  represented  in  Fig.  129  (p.  158).  The  muscles  of  their 
wings  are  larger,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body, 
than  those  of  any  other  bird.  Hence  their  extraordinary 
power  of  flight,  enabling  them  to  dart  with  the  velocity 
of  an  arrow,  or  to  remain  suspended  in  the  air  over  a  flow- 
er while  they  extract  the  honey  or  take  the  insects  which 
are  there.  The  humming  sound,  from  which  their  name 
comes,  is  produced  by  the  exceedingly  rapid  movement 
of  the  wings.  The  tongue  is  a  curious  instrument,  being 
split  into  two  tubular  filaments,  which  can  be  suddenly 

darted  out  to  a  con- 
siderable distance. 
Our  common  North- 
ern Humming-bird, 
Fig.  130,  comes  north 
as  late  as  May.  The 
male  bird  has  a 
\  changeable  ruby-col- 
ored throat.  There 
is  a  very  brilliant  spe- 
cies found  as  far  north 
on  the  western  coast 
of  America  as  Noot- 
ka  Sound,  the  male 

having  a  crimson  and  copper  colored  throat.  Nuttal 
speaks  of  it  as  seeming  like  "  a  breathing  gem  or  magic 
carbuncle  of  glowing  fire"  as  it  flies  about  in  search  of 
its  food. 

262.  While  the  Humming-birds  are  peculiar  to  the 
New  World,  the  Sunbirds  are  peculiar  to  the  Old,  al- 
most rivaling  the  former  hi  brilliancy  of  plumage,  and  re- 
sembling them  in  their  general  habits.  They  have  sim- 
ilar tongues ;  but  in  gathering  their  food  they  alight, 
and  never  hover  over  a  flower  as  the  Humming-birds  do. 
They  differ  from  the  Humming-birds  in  one  respect  very 
decidedly — they  are  generally  agreeable  songsters,  while 
the  voice  of  the  Humming-birds  is  nothing  but  a  shrill 


Fig.  130.— Northern  Humming-bird. 

a  crimson  and  copper 


160 


NATUKAL   HISTORY. 


cry.  These  birds  range  over  Africa,  Asia,  and  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean.  In  the  Hawaian  Islands  their  feathers  are 
highly  esteemed  as  ornaments  of  head-dresses,  and  com- 
mand a  high  price. 

263.  The  Honeysuckers  are  an  aberrant  family  pecul- 
iar to  Australia  and 
the  neighboring  isl- 
ands. The  Hoopoes 
are  a  still  more  aber- 
rant family.  The  Eu- 
ropean Hoopoe,  Fig. 
131,  with  its  crest, 
which  it  can  raise  or 
depress  at  pleasure, 
is  a  very  beautiful 
bird.  It  is  quite 
abundant  in  France. 
The  Creepers  are  still 
another  aberrant 
family,  some  species 
of  which  verge  to- 
ward the  Perchers, 
Fig.  i3i._EuroPean  Hoopoe.  especially  the  War- 

bler family,  and  others  toward  the  next  order  to  be  con- 
sidered, the  Scansores.  The  common  Creeper  of  Europe, 


Fig.  132.— Creeper. 


CLIMBING   BIRDS.  161 

Fig.  132  (p.  160),  is  supposed  to  be  of  the  same  species 
with  the  common  Creeper  of  this  country.  This  pretty 
little  bird  may  be  seen  running  spirally  up  the  trunks  of 
trees,  probing  the  bark  here  and  there  with  its  bill  in 
search  of  insects  that  harbor  in  the  crevices.  To  this 
family  belong  the  Nuthatches  and  the  Wrens,  of  both 
which  there  are  several  species  in  this  country. 

Questions.—  What  is  said  of  the  Thrush  family  ?  What  of  the 
Mocking-bird  ?  What  of  the  American  Robin  ?  What  of  the  Water 
Ousel  ?  What  other  birds  of  this  family  are  noticed  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  family  of  Fly-catchers  ?  What  of  the  Kingbird  ?  What  other 
birds  of  this  family  are  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of  the  family  of 
Waxwings  ?  What  is  the  third  division  of  the  Perchers  ?  What 
are  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  birds  of  this  division  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  Goatsuckers  ?  What  of  their  feet  ?  What  species  are 
mentioned  as  belonging  to  this  country  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Swal- 
lows? What  of  the  Swift  ?  Of  the  Chimney  Swallow  ?  Of  the  Bank 
Swallow?  What  is  said  of  the  Todies?  What  of  the  Trogons? 
What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Tenuirostres  ?  What  families  are 
in  this  group  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Humming-birds  ?  What  of  their 
wings  ?  Of  their  tongues  ?  Of  their  humming  ?  What  is  said  of  a 
species  found  on  the  western  coast  of  America  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Sunbirds  ?  What  of  the  Honeysuckers  ?  What  of  the  Creepers  ? 


CHAPTER  XYI. 

CLIMBING,  SCRATCHING,  AND  RUNNING  BIRDS. 

264.  WE  come  now  to  the  third  order  of  Land  Birds, 
the  Scansores,  or  Climbers.  They  have  four  toes,  two 
directed  forward  and  two  backward.  Spending  most  of 
their  time  in  climbing,  the  muscles  of  their  lower  extrem- 
ities are  made  strong  for  this  purpose ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  as  they  have  little  need  of  flying,  the  muscles  of 
their  wings  are  small.  The  order  includes  four  families : 
the  Parrots,  Toucans, Woodpeckers,  and  Cuckoos.  There 
are  such  marked  differences  between  these  families,  that 
it  would  seem  that  some  of  them  ought  to  be  reckoned 


162  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

as  separate  orders ;  but  they  all  agree  in  their  adaptation 
to  climbing,  and  therefore  they  are  classed  together  in 
the  order  Scansores. 

265.  The  Parrots  are  characterized  by  their  short,  hard, 
arched  beaks,  and  their  thick  fleshy  tongues.    They  are 
natives  of  the  tropical  and  warmer  temperate  regions  in 
both  hemispheres.     They  are  remarkable  for  their  edu- 
cability  and  their  power  of  imitation  in  the  use  of  the 
voice.     They  have  greater  prehensile  power  than  any 
other  birds,  using  the  beak  as  well  as  the  feet  in  grasp- 
ing.    On  account  of  this  power,  their  intelligence,  and 
their  arboreal  habits,  we  may  consider  the  Parrot  tribe 
as  holding  a  situation  among  birds  like  that  which  the 
Monkey  tribe  holds  among  the  Mammalia. 

266.  The  Toucans,  of  which  one  species  is  represented 
in  Fig.  133,  are  all  natives  of  South  America.    Their  enor- 
mous bills  are  made  light  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the 
Horn-bills  (§  244),  by  being  of  a  honeycomb  structure. 


Fig.  133 — Toucan. 


CLIMBING   BIRDS.  163 

The  Toucan  seems  to  be  omnivorous,  but  is  very  fond  of 
mice  and  small  birds,  which  it  kills  by  a  powerful  squeeze 
of  its  bill.  When  sleeping,  it  takes  special  care  of  its 
bill,  packing  it  away  among  its  feathers,  so  that  the  bird 
presents  the  appearance  of  a  great  feathery  ball. 

267.  The  Woodpeckers,  so  appropriately  named,  are 
widely  diffused,  being  found  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe 
except  Australia.  There  are  eight  species  in  this  coun- 
try. They  live  on  insects  and  grubs,  which  they  bore  for 
in  the  bark  and  wood  of  trees.  In  Fig.  134  you  have  the 
attitude  of  the  Woodpecker  as  he  bores.  The  bill  is 


Fig.  134.— Woodpecker. 

long,  sharp,  and  stout ;  and  with  his  powerful  feet  he 
holds  on  firmly,  while  he  drives  in  his  bill  with  all  the 
force  which  his  body  can  give  to  it.  The  sound  produced 
by  this  operation  is  very  much  like  that  of  a  watchman's 
rattle.  When  an  insect  or  grub  is  reached  by  this  bor- 
ing, it  is  drawn  out  by  the  tongue,  which  is  specially 
adapted  to  do  this.  It  is  very  long,  and  its  sharp  point 
is  barbed  with  several  filaments,  and  has  upon  it  a  gum- 


164  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

my  secretion.  If  the  insect  be  of  any  size  it  is  impaled, 
and  if  very  small,  this  glutinous  substance  makes  it  ad- 
here to  the  tongue.* 

268.  The  Cuckoo  family  is  quite  an  extensive  one,  con- 
sisting, for  the  most  part,  of  inhabitants  of  the  warmer 
regions.     The  species  which  in  spring  migrates  to  Great 
Britain,  and  is  so  common  there,  has  the  curious  habit 
of  laying  its  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds  of  various 
kinds,  making  them  perform  for  her  the  incubation  need- 
ed to  hatch  them.     The  Cuckoo  of  this  country,  though 
very  similar  in  most  respects,  has  no  such  habit.     The 
young  European  Cuckoos  seem  to  catch  the  spirit  of  the 
parent,  for  they  contrive  to  cast  out  of  the  nest  the  young 
of  the  bird  by  which  they  have  been  hatched.     But,  as 
they  do  this  slyly,  the  foster-mother,  knowing  nothing  of 
it,  does  not  cease  her  tender  care  of  the  intruders. 

269.  The  fourth  order  of  birds  is  that  of  the  Rasores, 
or  Scratchers.     The  food  of  these  birds  consists  chiefly 
of  grains  and  seeds,  and  they  accordingly  pass  most  of 
their  time  on  the  ground.     They  differ  in  this  respect 
from  the  birds  that  we  have  already  noticed,  which  live 
mostly  on  the  wing  or  on  trees.     Accordingly,  the  Ra- 
sores have  little  power  of  flight,  and  the  muscles  of  the 
wings  are  much  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
body  than  those  of  the  Perchers  and  other  birds  of  flight. 
Their  legs  are  sufficiently  long  to  enable  them  to  walk 
well,  and  their  feet  are  armed  with  short  stout  nails  fitted 
for  scratching  in  search  of  food.     As  their  food  is  hard, 
and  they  have  no  teeth  for  masticating  it,  there  is  a  crop 
for  macerating  it,  and  a  gizzard  for  reducing  it  to  pulp. 

*  It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Wood  that  these  birds  do  not  injure  trees — 
that  the  insects  which  they  seek  for  are  in  decayed  branches  and 
stumps,  and,  guided  by  instinct,  the  Woodpecker  bores  only  in  these. 
This,  however,  is  not  so,  and  I  have  this  summer  seen  in  my  garden 
a  thrifty  pear-tree  most  curiously  marked  by  the  borings  of  this  bird. 
The  holes  were  up  the  trunk  'and  out  upon  some  of  the  branches  in 
horizontal  rows,  from  five  to  eight  in  each  row. 


SCRATCHING   BIRDS.  165 

This  digestive  apparatus,  described  in  Chapter  XII.,  is 
seen  very  completely  developed  in  the  birds  of  this  order. 

270.  Most  of  the  Scratchers  do  not  associate  in  pairs. 
The  male  birds  have  nothing  to  do  with  taking  care  of 
the  young,  which  are  hatched  with  their  eyes  open,  and 
are  generally  able  to  run  about  at  once  in  search  of  food, 
instead  of  being  dependent  for  some  time  on  the  parent 
for  their  supply.    They  can,  for  the  most  part,  be  domes- 
ticated, and  they  are  the  most  useful  to  man  of  all  the 
birds,  affording  him  quite  a  large  portion  of  his  food. 
The  plumage  of  the  male  birds  is  usually  gay,  and  they 
often  have  crests  or  some  other  ornaments  on  the  head. 
The  females  commonly  differ  from  the  males  in  a  marked 
manner  in  these  respects. 

271.  There  is  a  striking  analogy  between  these  birds 
and  the  Ruminant  Quadrupeds  in  several  points.     In 
both  the  food  is  vegetable,  and  in  both  there  is  a  special 
provision  for  breaking  it  up  and  moistening  it,  so  that 
the  gastric  juice  may  readily  act  upon  it.    The  crop  in 
the  fowl  answers  to  the  paunch  in  the  Ruminant,  and  the 
crushing  by  the  gizzard  to  the  grinding  in  rumination, 
each  following  the  maceration.     Then,  too,  these  birds 
and  the  Ruminants  are  both,  for  the  most  part,  easily  do- 
mesticated, and  domestication  produces  in  both  great  va- 
riety in  breeds.    There  are  seven  families :  1.  The  Pigeon 
family.     2.  The  Curassows.     3.  The  Pheasants.     4.  The 
Grouse.     5.  The  Sheath-bills.     6.  The  Tinamous  family. 
7.  The  Greatfoots. 

272.  The  family  of  Pigeons  includes  both  those  birds 
called  by  this  name  and  those  which  are  called  Doves. 
These  birds  differ  from  those  of  the  other  families  of  this 
order  in  pairing ;  in  living  on  trees,  and,  much  of  the  time, 
on  the  wing,  for  which  they  are  adapted  by  the  large 
size  of  the  wing-muscles ;  and  in  having  the  hinder  toe  on 
a  level  with  the  others,  as  in  the  Perchers,  instead  of  be- 
ing above  them,  as  we  see  it  in  the  common  fowl  and  in 
all  the  other  families.    On  these  accounts  some  have  been 


166 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


disposed  to  make  the  Pigeon  tribe  an  order  by  them- 
selves. The  Pigeons  are  very  remarkable  for  their  mode 
of  feeding  their  young.  The  crop  is  double,  forming  two 

pouches,  one  on  either  side 
of  the  gullet,  as  represent- 
ed at  a  and  b  in  Fig.  135. 
Now,  while  the  bird  is  in- 
cubating, a  curious  change 
takes  place  in  the  crop,  and 
for  a  special  purpose.  Ordi- 
narily it  is  thin  and  smooth, 
as  seen  at  a;  but  when  the 
bird  is  about  to  have  young 
to  care  for,  the  crop  be- 
comes thick  and  full  of  lit- 
tle lumps,  as  represented  at 
b.  These  lumps  are  glands, 
that  have  now  become  en- 
larged, in  order  to  perform 
their  duty  of  pouring  a 
milky  fluid  into  the  crop.  The  object  of  this  is  to  soften 
the  food,  so  that,  when  this  is  done,  the  bird  may  throw 
it  up  out  of  the  crop  and  give  it  to  its  young.  It  is  sin- 
gular that  the  same  change  takes  place  in  the  male  bird ; 
and  both  parents,  therefore,  engage  in  feeding  their  off- 
spring. The  most  conspicuous  varieties  of  the  domestic 
Pigeons  are  seen  in  Fig.  136  (p.  167).  That  large  Pig- 
eon, the  Pouter,  is  able  to  inflate  its  crop  with  air  so  as 
almost  to  hide  its  head  behind  it,  and  it  seems  to  be  quite 
vain  of  this  accomplishment. 

273.  This  family  are  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the 
globe,  and  in  some  they  multiply  to  an  enormous  extent. 
The  most  remarkable  in  this  respect  is  the  Passenger 
Pigeon  of  this  country.  "The  associated  numbers  of 
wild  Pigeons,"  says  Nuttal, "  are  without  any  other  par- 
allel in  the  feathered  race ;  they  can,  indeed,  alone  be 
compared  to  the  shoals  of  herrings,  which,  descending 


Fig.  135.— Pigeon's  Craw. 


SCRATCHING   BIRDS. 


167 


Fig.  133.— Domestic  Pigeons. 

from  the  arctic  regions,  discolor  and  fill  the  ocean  to  the 
extent  of  mighty  kingdoms.  To  talk  of  hundreds  of  mil- 
lions of  individuals  of  the  same  species  habitually  associ- 
ated in  feeding,  roosting,  and  breeding,  without  any  re- 
gard to  climate  or  season  as  an  operating  cause  in  these 
gregarious  movements,  would  at  first  appear  to  be  whol- 
ly incredible,  if  not  borne  out  by  most  abundant  testi- 
mony. The  approach  of  the  mighty  feathered  army  with 
a  loud  rushing  roar,  and  a  stirring  breeze,  attended  by  a 
sudden  darkness,  might  be  mistaken  for  a  fearful  tornado. 
For  several  hours  together  the  vast  host,  extending  some 
miles  in  breadth,  still  continues  to  pass  in  flocks  without 
diminution.  At  the  approach  of  the  Hawk  their  sublime 
and  beautiful  aerial  evolutions  are  disturbed,  like  the  ruf- 
fling squall  extending  over  the  placid  ocean."  Audubon 
calculated,  estimating  one  of  these  flocks  to  be  a  mile  in 
width,  and  allowing  two  pigeons  to  each  square  yard, 
that  it  numbered  eleven  hundred  and  fifteen  millions,  and 
that  the  quantity  of  food  necessary  for  its  supply  must 


168  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

be  8,712,000  bushels  per  day.  Their  breeding-places  are 
large  forests,  sometimes  fifty  miles  long  by  four  or  five 
wide,  in  which  every  tree  has  from  fifty  to  a  hundred 
nests. 

274.  The  flight  of  the  Pigeon  is  very  rapid.     Pigeons 
have  been  killed  in  New  York  State  with  Carolina  rice 
in  their  crops.     Judging  by  the  short  time  required  in 
them  for  the  process  of  digestion,  it  is  calculated  that 
these  birds  must  have  flown  between  three  and  four  hund- 
red miles  in  six  hours,  which  is  over  a  mile  in  a  minute. 
The  Carrier  Pigeon  has  been  known  to  fly  much  faster 
than  this — nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  an  hour. 
Before  the  invention  of  the  Electric  Telegraph  this  bird 
was  extensively  employed  in  Europe  for  carrying  mes- 
sages.    Some  were  trained  to  carry  both  from  and  to 
their  residence.    The  letter  was  fastened  under  the  wing 
or  to  its  feet.     The  feet  were  bathed  in  vinegar  to  keep 
them  cool,  lest  the  bird  should  stop  on  the  way  to  bathe. 
On  starting,  it  rose  high  in  the  air,  made  two  or  three 
circular  sweeps,  and  then  darted  off  like  an  arrow  for  its 
place  of  destination. 

275.  The  other  six  families  are  styled  commonly  the 
true  Gallinaceous  birds,  from  gallus,  cock,  and  gallina, 
hen.    The  Curassows  are  peculiar  to  the  tropical  part  of 
South  America.     Some  species  are  as  large  as  Turkeys, 
and  are  much  prized  as  food.    They  can  be  easily  domes- 
ticated. 

276.  In  the  Pheasant  family  the  hind  toe  is  placed  so 
high  that  only  the  tip  touches  the  ground,  and  there  are 
also  commonly  one  or  more  spurs.     This  family  includes 
the  common  Fowls,  Turkeys,  Pheasants,  Peacocks,  Par- 
tridges, etc.    The  common  Fowl  is  more  extensively  dif- 
fused than  any  others,  and  there  are  many  varieties  pro- 
duced by  domestication.     Its  native  country  is  India,  in 
whose  jungles  it  is  found  in  great  numbers  living  on 
grain  and  seeds.    The  Turkeys  are  natives  of  North  and 
Central  America.    The  wattles,  which  are  larger  in  these 


SCRATCHING   BIBDS. 


169 


than  in  any  other  birds  of  this  family,  are  loose  folds  of 
skin  well  supplied  with  blood-vessels.  These  become 
redder  and  fuller  when  the  Turkey  is  excited,  just  as  the 
cheeks  of  man  are  reddened  in  blushing.  The  true  Pheas- 
ants are  allied  to  the  Fowls.  They  are  found  wild  in  va- 
rious parts  of  Asia.  The  most  splendid  species  is  the 
Argus  Pheasant,  Fig.  137,  a  native  of  Sumatra,  Malacca, 

and  the  southeast 
part  of  Asia.  The 
beautiful  eye -spots 
on  its  plumage  sug- 
gested the  name  of 
Argus,  the  shep- 
herd, who,  with  his 
hundred  eyes,  was 
set  by  Juno  to 
watch  lo. 

277.  The  Grouse 
family  is  diffused 
,  x  over  the  northern 
^  parts  of  America, 
Europe,  and  Asia. 
They  differ  from  the 
Pheasants  in  having 
no  naked  crests  or 
wattles,  and  in  the 
absence  of  brilliant 
colors  in  the  plu- 
mage. They  vary 
much  in  size,  the 
Partridges  and 
Quails  being  birds 
of  moderate  size,  while  the  Cock  of  the  Wood  in  Europe, 
and  the  Cock  of  the  Plains  in  this  country,  are  nearly  as 
large  as  the  Turkey.  The  California  Quail  is  a  beautiful 
bird,  having  a  delicate  crest  of  a  dark  color,  which  it  can 
erect  or  depress  at  pleasure.  The  Ptarmigans  are  an  in- 
H 


Fig.  131.— Argus  Pheasant. 


170  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

teresting  portion  of  the  Grouse  family.  They  live  in  the 
far  north  in  America  and  Europe.  Their  legs,  and  even 
the  feet,  are  covered  with  hair-like  feathers.  Their  plu- 
mage, like  the  fur  of  the  Ermine  and  some  other  quadru- 
peds, changes,  as  winter  comes  on,  from  a  rich,  almost 
tortoise-shell  color,  to  a  pure  white.  The  trade  in  Ptar- 
migans in  the  north  of  Europe  is  very  extensive.  The 
captured  birds  are  kept  in  a  frozen  state  for  the  dealers 
who  come  for  them. 

278.  The  Sheath-bills  are  a  comparatively  small  family, 
found  chiefly  in  South  America.     Their  nostrils  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  kind  of  sheath,  and  their  plumage  is  snowy 
white.     The  Tinamous  family,  also  a  small  one,  is  found 
in  the  same  country,  where  they  seem  to  occupy  the 
same  place  that  the  Partridges  and  Quails  do  in  other 
countries.     The  family  of  Greatfoots  is  peculiar  to  Aus- 
tralia and  the  adjacent  islands.     One  of  them  is  called 
the  Brush  Turkey,  from  its  resemblance  in  general  form 
to  the  common  Turkey.    It  lives  in  the  thick  brushwood 
of  Australia.     This  and  another  bird,  the  Mound-making 
Megapode  (Greatfoot),  are  famous  for  making  the  mounds 
spoken  of  in  §  205.     This  latter  bird  deposits  its  eggs 
some  five  or  six  feet  deep  in  its  mound,  and  then  covers 
them  up.    Its  mounds  are  very  large.    One  of  them  was 
found  to  be  fifteen  feet  high  and  sixty  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence.    They  were  at  first  supposed  to  be  the  tombs  of 
the  aborigines. 

279.  We  come  now  to  the  order  Cursores,  or  Runners 
— the  Ostriches  and  their  allies.     We  commonly  think 
of  birds  as  being,  of  course,  capable  of  flight,  but  here  we 
have  a  class  of  birds  which  are  wholly  terrestrial.    Near- 
ly all  of  them  have  wings,  but  all  that  their  wings  can  do 
is  to  assist  them  in  running.     Their  wings  being  small, 
the  muscles  which  move  them  are  small  also.     Accord- 
ingly, the  breast-bone  is  entirely  destitute  of  the  project- 
ing keel  (§  199)  which  it  has  in  other  birds,  this  being 
needed  only  for  the  attachment  of  large  muscles.    In  the 


BUNNING   BIRDS.  171 

Cursores  this  bone  is  a  smooth  round  shield  on  its  breast. 
While  the  muscles  of  the  wings  are  small,  those  of  the 
legs  are  very  stout — their  chief  power  is  there.  The  plu- 
mage differs  from  those  of  birds  of  flight,  the  laminae  of 
the  feathers  not  being  united  together  by  barbs  (§  197). 
Such  a  union  is  needed  for  the  pressure  on  the  air  re- 
quired in  flying,  and  therefore  is  omitted  when  there  is 
no  flying  to  be  done. 

280.  This  group  of  birds  is,  then,  an  aberrant  one,  and, 
as  is  usually  the  case  in  groups  of  this  character,  there 
are  but  few  species.     One  of  the  most  prominent  is  the 
African  Ostrich.     This  is  the  tallest  of  all  birds,  reach- 
ing sometimes  even  to  eight  feet.     It  is  found  in  the 
sandy  deserts  of  Africa  and  Arabia.     It  is  probably  the 
swiftest  of  all  running  animals.     It  can  be  domesticated, 
and  will  easily  carry  two  men  on  its  back.     Its  nest  is 
merely  a  hollow  made  in  the  sand,  and  the  hatching  of 
the  eggs  is  not  left  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  but  both  the 
male  and  female  bird  engage  in  the  incubation.     The 
Bushmen  make  of  these  shells  water-flasks,  cups,  and  dish- 
es.   The  food  of  the  Ostrich  consists  of  the  tops  of  shrub- 
by plants,  seeds,  and  grain.     It  swallows,  also,  stones, 
sticks,  bits  of  metal,  leather,  etc.,  probably  guided  by  in- 
stinct, as  these  will  help  the  grinding  of  the  food,  as  the 
gravel  does  which  the  common  Fowl  swallows.     There 
is  an  American  Ostrich,  a  smaller  bird,  found  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  South  America. 

281.  The  Emu,  Fig.  138  (page  172),  a  native  of  Austra- 
lia, is  nearly  as  large  as  the  Ostrich,  but  is  lower  on  the 
legs,  has  a  shorter  neck,  and  is  more  thickse^  in  body. 
The  wings  are  mere  rudiments,  and  are  concealed  be- 
neath the  feathers  of  the  body.     The  feathers  strongly 
resemble  branching  hairs,  the  laminae  being  at  a  distance 
from  each  other.     The  Cassowary,  a  native  of  Java  and 
the  neighboring  islands,  is  much  smaller  than  the  Os- 
trich.    Of  all  the  Cursores,  the  Apteryx  of  New  Zealand 
is  the  one  most  completely  destitute  of  wings.     It  has  a 


172  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Fig.  138.— Emu. 

very  long  bill,  on  which  it  sometimes  rests  as  an  old  man 
does  upon  his  cane  placed  before  him.  Unlike  the  other 
Cursores,  it  lives  on  insects  and  worms.  Its  habits  are 
nocturnal,  and  the  natives  hunt  it  by  torchlight  for  the 
sake  of  its  skin,  which  is  highly  valued  as  a  material  for 
the  dresses  of  their  chiefs.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  in 
the  volcanic  sands  of  New  Zealand  there  have  been  found 
the  bones  of  several  large  birds  of  this  order  now  extinct. 
One  of  them  is  supposed  to  have  been  fourteen  feet  in 
height. 

• 

Questions. — What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Scansores  ?  What 
are  their  families  ?  What  is  said  of  their  differences  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  Parrots  ?  What  of  the  Toucans  ?  What  of  the  Woodpeckers  ? 
Of  the  Cuckoos  ?  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Rasores  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  analogies  between  them  and  the  Ruminant  Quad- 
rupeds ?  What  are  the  families  of  the  Rasores  ?  What  are  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  Pigeon  family  ?  What  is  said  of  their  digestive  ap- 
paratus ?  What  is  said  of  the  Pouter  Pigeon  ?  What  of  the  flocks 


THE   WADING    AND   SWIMMING   BIBDS.  173 

of  wild  Pigeons  ?  What  of  the  power  of  flight  in  Pigeons  ?  What 
of  the  Carrier  Pigeon  ?  What  are  the  Gallinaceous  birds  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  Curassows?  What  does  the  Pheasant  family  include? 
What  is  said  of  the  common  Fowl  ?  What  of  the  Argus  Pheasant  ? 
How  do  the  Grouse  family  differ  from  the  Pheasants  ?  What  is  said 
of  their  size  ?  What  is  said  of  the  California  Quail  ?  What  of  the 
Ptarmigans  ?  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Sheath-bills  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Tinamous  family  ?  What  of  the  Greatfbots  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  Cursores?  What  of  the  African  Ostrich?  What  of  the 
Emu  ?  What  of  the  Apteryx  ? 


CHAPTER  XVH. 

THE   WADING   AND   SWIMMING   BIEDS. 

282.  WE  have  now  arrived  at  the  Water  Birds,  the 
Grallatores  and  the  Natatores.    The  Grallatores  are  com- 
monly called  Waders ;  but,  as  Carpenter  says,  they  would 
be  more  appropriately  named  Stilt-walkers,  the  real  mean- 
ing of  the  word  Grallatores,  for  they  are  all  remarkable 
for  the  length  of  their  legs,  while  many  of  them  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  be  aquatic  in  their  habits.    Those 
which  are  most  decidedly  aquatic  have  their  feet  partial- 
ly webbed.    This  is  probably  to  enable  them  to  swim  in 
case  that  they  should  get  beyond  their  depth.     Most  of 
the  birds  of  this  order  find  their  food  in  the  water,  which 
consists  of  fish,  mollusks,  aquatic  worms  and  insects. 
Their  legs  are,  accordingly,  both  long  and  naked,  so  that 
they  may  wade  with  facility,  and  their  necks  and  bills  are 
long,  that  they  may  reach  their  food.    They  are  generally 
slender  birds,  and  their  wings  are  fitted  for  rapid  flight. 
Their  tails  are  short,  and  they  therefore  stretch  out  their 
long  legs  behind  to  act  as  a  rudder,  in  place  of  the  tails 
of  other  flying  birds  (§210).    They  are  distributed  wide- 
ly over  the  earth,  and  many  of  them  make  periodical  mi- 
grations north  and  south.     There  are  six  families :  Bus- 
tards, Plovers,  Cranes,  Herons,  Snipes,  and  Rails. 

283.  The  Bustards  are  natives  of  the  Eastern  Conti- 


174 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


nent  and  Australia.  As  these  birds  have  the  stout  legs 
of  an  Ostrich,  and  are  fast  runners,  preferring  running  to 
flying,  some  naturalists  place  them  among  the  Cursores ; 
but  as  they  have  wings  of  considerable  size,  and  can  fly 
readily  and  far,  they  obviously  do  not  belong  in  that  or- 
der. They  have  some  alliance  to  the  Pheasants  (§  276), 
for  they  live  in  part  on  gram,  deposit  their  eggs  in  the 
ground  without  any  proper  nest,  and  do  not  live  in  pairs. 
The  Great  Bustard,  Fig.  139,  is  the  largest  of  all  the  Eu- 
ropean birds.  The 
full  -  grown  male  is 
four  feet  long,  and 
weighs  from  thirty 
to  forty  pounds. 
Though  once  com- 
mon in  England,  it 
is  now  rarely  seen 
there ;  but  it  is  still 
common  in  Spain, 
Greece,  in  some  parts 
of  Russia,  and  in  the 
wilds  of  Tartary. 

284.  The  Plover 
family  are  also  good 

E 

Fig.  i39._Great  Bustard.  temperate     climates 

of  the  Old  World.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  sandy,  un- 
sheltered shores  and  moors.  Their-  wings  are  large,  and 
in  their  flight  they  wheel  round  in  circles,  much  like  the 
Swifts  and  the  Pigeons.  The  Oyster-catcher,  extensively 
distributed  in  the  Old  World,  is  also  one  of  the  Plovers 
of  this  country.  It  lives  on  Oysters  and  other  bivalves, 
having  a  wedge-shape^  bill  peculiarly  fitted  to  open  them. 
The  Lapwing,  Fig.  140  (p.  175),  one  of  the  European  Plov- 
ers, is  a  beautiful  bird.  It  has  a  crest  of  long  black 
feathers  extending  backward,  and  this,  with  the  black 


THE    WADING    AND    SWIMMING    BIRDS. 


175 


and  white  colors  of 
the  plumage  of  its 
body,  makes  it  a 
very  conspicuous 
bird  in  its  flight. 

285.  The  general 
shape  of  the  Crane 
family  you  see  ex- 
emplified in  the 
common  Crane, 

Fig.  140.— Lapwing.  Fig.  141,   which    is 

found  over  a  large  part  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.     In 
the  summer  it  is  found  in  the  north  of  Europe  and  Asia, 


Fig.  141. — Crane. 

but  in  winter  it  migrates  to  India,  to  Egypt,  and  other 
parts  of  Africa.  It  flies  to  a  great  height,  and  even  when 
almost  out  of  sight  its  hoarse  cry  is  audible.  It  feeds  on 
frogs,  snails,  worms,  and  grain.  It  is  about  three  or  four 
feet  in  length.  There  is  a  singular  species  of  Crane  in 


176 


NATURAL   HISTOBY. 


South  America,  called,  from  its  loud  harsh  voice,  the 
Trumpeter.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  Fowl,  and  is  read- 
ily domesticated.  It  runs  rapidly,  but  seldom  takes  the 
wing.  There  are  two  large  membranous  bags  connect- 
ed with  the  windpipe  at  its  lower  part,  which  are  sup- 
posed to  give  force  to  the  voice,  being  used  as  the  full 
bag  of  air  is  in  the  bagpipe. 

286.  The  Heron  family  may  be  considered  as  the  typ- 
ical family  of  this  order,  the  birds  included  in  it  being 
pre-eminently  formed  for  wading.  They  are  found  on 
the  margins  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  marshes,  and  live  on 
fishes,  reptiles,  and  sometimes  small  Mammalia.  They 
have,  usually,  long,  stout,  and  sharp-pointed  beaks,  in  or- 
der to  capture  the  fish 
for  which  they  watch 
so  patiently  in  the  atti- 
tude represented  in  Fig. 
142.  Contrary  to  the 
habits  of  most  of  the 
birds  of  this  order,  the 
Heron  builds  its  nest 
in  a  high  tree,  feeding 
its  young  with  fish  for 
five  or  six  weeks.  The 
common  Heron,  Figure 
142,  is  spread  over  a 
great  .part  of  the  Old 
World.  The  plumes  of 
this  bird  were  former- 
ly worn  as  ornaments 
only  by  the  noble. 
There  is  an  allied  species  in  America.  The  Spoon-bills, 
notwithstanding  the  form  of  the  beak,  are  generally  rank- 
ed in  the  Heron  family.  They  live  by  the  edges  of  marsh- 
es, or  near  the  sea-shore,  where  there  are  thick  bushes, 
and  their  food  consists  of  fishes,  mollusks,  and  aquatic 
insects.  The  White  Spoon-bill  of  the  Old  World,  Fig. 


Fig.  142.— Heron. 


THE    WADING   AND   SWIMMING   BIEDS. 


177 


Fig.  143.— White  Spoon-bill. 


143,  is  nearly  three  feet 
long.  There  is  an  al- 
lied species  in  South 
America  called  the 
Boat-bill. 

287.  The  Storks  are 
among  the  largest  birds 
of  this  order,  but  they 
are  less  aquatic  than  the 
other  families.  They 
are  shaped  much  like 
the  Cranes,  but  have 
not  the  pendent  plumes 
in  the  tail.  They  are 
abundant  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa.  They 
winter  in  the  latter 
country.  They  build 
their  nests  in  towers,  chimneys,  and  steeples,  or  in  the 
broadly-spreading  branches  of  a  cedar  or  pine.  In  Hol- 
land, a  kind  of  false  chimney  is  built  by  the  inhabitants 
for  these  birds  to  make  their  nests  in.  They  live  on  rats, 
mice,  frogs,  and  sometimes  carrion  or  offal,  and  for  this 
reason  they  are  held  in  esteem,  especially  in  the  Eastern 
countries.  The  Adjutant  of  India,  which  is  so  useful  in 
destroying  vermin  and  offal,  is  one  of  the  Stork  family. 
So  is  also  the  sacred  Ibis  of  Egypt,  which  figures  so  often 
in  their  hieroglyphics. 

288.  The  distribution  of  the  Snipe  family  is  very  gen- 
eral. Their  food  consists  of  insects,  worms,  slugs,  aquat- 
ic mollusks,  etc.,  which  they  obtain  by  thrusting  their 
long  and  slender  bills  into  mud  or  moist  earth.  Their 
bills  are  accordingly  provided  with  nerves,  so  that  they 
may  know  at  once  whenever  they  strike  upon  their  prey. 
The  flesh  of  these  birds  is  held  in  high  esteem.  The 
Woodcock  of  this  country  has  its  counterpart  in  Europe. 
The  Curlews,  of  which  you  have  an  example  in  Fig.  144, 
H2 


178 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


are  characterized  by 
their  curved  beaks. 
Birds  of  this  genus 
of  the  Snipe  family 
are  found  in  the 
northern  parts  of 
both  continents. 
The  largest  of  the 
American  Curlews, 
appropriately  called 
the  Sickle-bill,is  over 
two  feet  in  length, 
and  has  a  bill  from 
seven  to  nine  inches 
long. 

289.  In  the  Avo- 
cet,  Fig.  145,  the  bill 
turns  upward  in  its  curve.  This  bird  gathers  its  food  by 
scooping  it  up  from  the  mud.  In  searching  for  it,  it 


Fig.  141— Curlew. 


Fig.  145.— Avocet. 

moves  its  bill  from  one  side  to  the  other  like  the  motions 
of  a  mower,  and  leaves  its  traces  in  the  mud.  The  Amer- 
ican Avocet, Wilson  says,  is  called  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Cape  May,  the  Lawyer,  from  its  flippant  clamor.  It  is 


THE    WADING   AND   SWIMMING   BIRDS. 


179 


sometimes  called  Blue-stocking,  from  the  color  of  its  legs. 
The  Stilt  Plovers,  remarkable  for  the  great  length  of 
their  legs,  are  included  among  the  Avocets. 

290.  The  Rail  family  are  characterized  by  their  long 
toes,  enabling  them  to  walk  easily  over  soft  mud  or  even 
the  leaves  of  water-plants.     Some  of  the  tribe  have  for 
this  purpose  membranous  margins  along  the  sides  of  the 

toes,  so  that  the  foot 
may  have  a  consider- 
able flat  surface.  The 
Jacanas,  of  which  a 
specimen  is  given  in 
Fig.  146,  can  walk  on 
the  broad  leaves  of 
water-plants,  and,  as 
these  leaves  sink  a  lit- 
tle as  the  foot  press- 
es on  them,  the  bird 
has  the  appearance 
of  walking  on  the  wa- 
ter. These  birds  are 
found  in  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America.  The 
specimen  represent- 
ed in  the  figure  is  the 
species  found  in  Brazil  and  Guiana. 

291.  Birds  of  the  order  Natatores  have  a  peculiar  pro- 
vision for  swimming.     They  are  web-footed ;  that  is,  the 
toes  are  connected  together  by  a  membrane  or  web,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  147  (p.  180),  so  that  the  feet  can  be  used  as 
oars  or  paddles.     In  the  act  of  swimming,  the  toes  are 
brought  near  together  when  the  foot  is  carried  forward, 
and  they  are  spread  out  when  it  is  carried  backward. 
The  body  of  the  bird  is  boat  -  shaped,  so  as  to  move 
through  the  water  easily.     In  those  which  are  the  most 
aquatic  in  their  habits,  the  feet  are  placed  far  back,  so 
that  they  may  propel  the  body  effectively ;  and  this  gives 


Fig.  146.— Jacana. 


180  NATURAL   HISTOBY. 

the  peculiar  waddling  gait  which  is  so  familiar  to  us  in 
the  Duck.    Their  plumage  is  dense,  and  it  is  oiled  by  a 


Fig.  147.— Foot  of  Gannet. 

secretion  from  glands,  which  keeps  it  from  being  pene- 
trated by  the  water.  Their  necks  are  long,  to  enable 
them  to  reach  their  food.  They  are  the  only  birds,  Cu- 
vier  remarks,  in  which  the  neck  is  longer  than  the  legs. 
There  are  five  families :  Ducks,  Divers,  Auks,  Gulls,  and 
Pelicans. 

292.  The  Duck  family  have  broad  bills  with  horny 
laminae  at  the  edges,  which  act  as  a  filter,  allowing  the 
water  to  escape,  but  retaining  substances  which  are  in  it. 
While  this  is  going  on,  the  tongue,  which  is  soft  and  well 
endowed  with  nerves,  is  informing  the  animal  what  is 
and  what  is  not  worthy  of  being  retained,  or,  in  other 
words,  selecting  its  food.    There  are  nerves  in  the  bill, 
also,  which  assist  in  this  selection.     The  food  is  various, 
consisting  of  insects,  worms,  mollusks,  grains,  etc.    These 
birds  are  distributed  widely  over  the  globe,  and  are  usu- 
ally migratory.     The  flights  of  the  Wild  Geese  in  their 
military  order  are  familiar  to  us.     From  the  Wild  Geese 
and  Ducks  come  the  domesticated  ones.     As  the  Goose 
lives  more  on  land  than  the  Duck,  its  legs  are  not  set  so 
far  back,  and  it  walks  better.    It  seems  to  partake  of  the 
characteristics  of  both  the  Swimmers  and  the  Waders. 
As  it  lives  so  much  on  land,  its  food  is  principally  grains 
and  grass. 

293.  The  true  Ducks  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
those  which  frequent  inland  shallow  waters,  and  those 


THE   WADING   AND    SWIMMING   BIRDS. 


181 


which  are  found  in  deeper  waters  and  in  the  sea.  The 
latter  are  well  provided  for  in  their  swimming  apparatus, 
and  are  good  divers  also.  The  Eider  Duck,  an  inhabit- 
ant of  the  northern  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  furnish- 
es the  famous  eider-down.  The  beautiful  and  graceful 
Swans  belong  to  the  Duck  family.  They  are  inhabitants 
of  the  east  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Among  the  singular  an- 
imals of  that  country  so  fruitful  in  strange  things,  Aus- 
tralia, there  is  a  Swan,  the  whole  of  whose  plumage  is  a 

jetty  black.  The 
Flamingo,  Figure 
1 48,  although  it  has 
the  long  legs  of  a 
Crane,  and  so  is  a 
good  wader ,is  com- 
monly reckoned  in 
the  Duck  family, 
because  its  feet  are 
well  webbed,  and 
its  mandibles  are 
laminated  as  in  the 
case  of  the  true 
Ducks.  It  is  found 
in  Africa,  Asia,  and 
the  warmer  parts 
of  Europe.  The 
color  of  the  plu- 
mage is  a  deep 
1  brilliant  scarlet,  ex- 
cept the  quill-feath- 
ers,  which  are 
black.  When  a 
flock  of  these  birds 
stand  hi  a  line,  as 
they  often  do,  they  look  like  a  file  of  small  soldiers.  The 
nest  of  the  Flamingo  is  a  conical  heap  made  of  mud,  with 
a  hollow  place  in  the  top.  When  it  sits  on  the  nest  its 
long  legs  hang  over  the  sides. 


Fig.  148.— Flamingo. 


182 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


294.  The  family  of  Divers  have  short  wings,  and  their 
legs  are  so  far  back  on  the  body  that  they  always  are 
erect  when  they  stand.  They  live  on  fish,  which  they 
catch  by  diving.  They  are  inhabitants  of  the  northern 
regions.  The  Grebes,  a  branch  of  this  family,  are  not 
web -footed,  but  have  their  toes  separate  and  broadly 
fringed  along  their  edges.  Each  toe  is  therefore  a  pad- 
dle. It  is  supposed  that  this  arrangement  enables  the 
bird  to  swim  easily  where  there  is  much  vegetation  in 
the  water.  The  quickness  with  which  the  Grebes  dive 
is  wonderful.  They  have  been  seen  to  dive  quickly  enough 
to  avoid  the  shot  of  a  gun  on  hearing  the  report,  and 
come  up  at  the  distance  of  two  hundred  yards.  They 

get  along  very  poorly 
on  land,  for  they  are 
obliged  to  lie  their 
whole  length  and 
then  shuffle  along  like 
seals.  The  Crested 
Grebe,  Figure  149,  is 
found  in  Scotland  and 
England. 

295.  The  Auks 
have,  like  the  Divers, 
very  short  wings,  and 
their  feet  are  set  far 
back.  They  use  their 
wings  in  swimming 
as  the  whales  do  their 
flippers  and  as  fishes 
do  their  fins,  so  that 
they  may  be  said  to  fly  in  the  water.  They  use  their 
webbed  feet,  also,  at  the  same  time.  The  Great  Auk,  a 
bird  three  feet  in  length,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  arctic 
regions.  So,  also,  is  the  Puffin,  another  of  this  family. 
The  Auks  and  Puffins  of  the  northern  regions  are  rep- 
resented by  the  Penguins  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 


Fig.  149. -Crested  Grebe. 


THE   WADING   AND    SWIMMING   BIRDS. 


183 


Fig.  150.— Cape  Penguin. 


The  Cape  Penguin,  Fig.  150,  is  very  abundant  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  and  the  Falkland  Islands.     In  the  water 

its  wings  are  used  as 
fins,  but  on  the  land 
as  front  legs.  When 
it  crawls,  as  we  may 
say,  on  all -fours,  it 
moves  so  quickly  that 
it  might  readily  be 
taken  for  a  quadru- 
ped. The  rookeries 
of  the  Penguins,  ar- 
ranged with  great 
regularity,  though  oc- 
cupied by  vast  num- 
bers of  them,  have  oft- 
en been  described  by 
travelers.  They  make 
a  singular  appearance  standing  on  the  shore  in  dense  col- 
umns in  immense  multitudes.  The  largest  species  of 
Patagonian  Penguin  is  four  feet  high,  and  weighs  forty 
pounds.  These  birds,  looked  at  in  front,  appear,  with 
their  fin-like  wings  hanging  down  like  arms,  as  so  many 
children  with  white  aprons  on. 

296.  The  Gulls,  in  strong  contrast  with  the  family  just 
noticed,  are  distinguished  by  great  power  of  flight.  They 
are  found  at  sea  at  all  distances,  and  never  at  any  dis- 
tance inland,  and  they  are  therefore  said  to  be  oceanic  in 
their  habits.  They  obtain'  their  food  at  or  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  and  so  are  not  good  divers.  The 
Stormy  Petrel,  Fig.J51  (p.  184),  the  smallest  of  all  web- 
footed  birds,  belongs  to  this  family.  It  is  distributed  over 
every  part  of  the  ocean.  It  is  called  by  the  sailor  Moth- 
er Carey's  Chicken,  and  is  associated  in  his  mind  with 
the  idea  of  a  storm,  because  it  is  so  much  at  ease  even  in 
the  most  violent  storms,  coursing  over  the  waves  in  the 
most  sportive  manner.  These  birds  are  fond  of  accom- 


184 


NATUBAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  151.— Stormy  Petrel. 


panying  ships  in  their 
course,  and  in  doing 
so,  fly  with  the  great- 
est rapidity  in  every 
direction,  now  ahead 
and  now  astern. 
They  have  the  faculty 
of  standing  and  swim- 
ming on  the  surface 
of  the  water.  When 
any  greasy  matter  is 
thrown  overboard, 
they  collect  about  it, 
and  facing  to  the  windward,  they  manage,  with  their  out- 
stretched wings  and  their  feet  patting  the  water,  to  keep 
themselves  stationary  while  they  eat  it.  In  calm  weath- 
er, by  a  gentle  action  of  the  wings,  they  walk  along  on 
the  surface  of  the  water  with  the  greatest  ease.  It  was 
the  walking  of  the  Apostle  Peter  on  the  water  that  sug- 
gested the  name  of  Petrel  for  these  birds. 

297.  To  the  same  family  belongs  the  Albatross,  so  much 
in  contrast  with  the  Stormy  Petrel  in  size.     This  gigan- 
tic bird,  weighing  about  twenty  pounds,  and  having  a 
spread  of  wing  sometimes  of  fourteen  feet,  is  an  inhabit- 
ant of  the  southern  seas.    With  its  great  power  of  flight, 
it  is  a  grand  and  beautiful  object  as  it  sweeps  over  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  chase  of  the  Flying-fish.    This  and 
other  fish  it  swallows  whole,  being  able  to  appropriate  in 
this  way  a  fish  of  even  four  or  five  pounds. 

298.  The  Terns,  or  Sea  Swallows,  another  branch  of 
this  family,  are  like  the  Swifts  and  the  Swallows  of  the 
land  in  their  long  pointed  wings  and  forked  tails.     Like 
them,  also,  they  take  their  prey  on  the  wing.     Some  of 
them  live  on  fish,  and  some  on  insects,  like  the  land  Swal- 
lows.    The  common  Tern,  Fig.  152  (p.  185),  is  found  in 
abundance  on  the  shores  of  both  continents.     It  lives  on 
fish,  which  it  snatches  from  the  water  as  it  skims  over 


THE   WADING    AND   SWIMMING    BIRDS.  185 


Fig.  152 — Common  Tern. 

its  surface  with  a  velocity  perhaps  unsurpassed  by  any 
bird. 

299.  The  last  family  of  the  Natatores,  the  Pelicans,  are 
distinguished  by  the  length  of  the  hind  toe  and  its  union 
with  the  other  toes  in  the  web,  as  seen  in  Fig.  147.   With 
this  extent  of  web  they  are  great  swimmers ;  and  yet 
they  often  perch  on  trees,  which  the  length  of  the  hind 
toe  enables  them  to  do.     The  edge  of  the  bills  is  gener- 
ally toothed,  by  which  they  can  hold  securely  the  fish 
which  they  take.     The  true  Pelicans,  from  which  the 
whole  family  is  named,  have  a  large  pouch  of  skin  hang- 
ing from  the  lower  mandible,  which  serves  them  as  the 
cheek-pouches  do  the  Monkeys. 

300.  The  Cormorant,  Fig.  153  (p.  186),  is  one  of  this 
family.     The  sac  is  so  small  in  the  case  of  this  bird  that 
it  can  not  be  called  a  pouch.     There  is  a  powerful  hook 
on  the  end  of  its  upper  mandible.    It  is  an  excellent  div- 
er, and  actually  gives  chase  to  fish  under  water,  seldom 
coming  up  without  a  victim.     It  is  a  very  voracious  an- 
imal.   Waterton  gives  the  following  account  of  this  bird's 
operations  in  the  water :  "  First  raising  his  body  nearly 
perpendicular,  down  he  plunges  into  the  deep,  and,  aft- 
er staying  there  a  considerable  time,  he  is  sure  to  bring 
up  a  fish,  which  he  invariably  swallows  head  foremost. 
Sometimes  half  an  hour  elapses  before  he  can  manage  to 
accommodate  a  large  eel  quietly  in  his  stomach.    You 


186 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


see  him  straining  vio- 
lently with  repeated 
efforts  to  gulp  it,  and 
when  you  fancy  that 
the  slippery  mouthful 
is  successfully  dis- 
posed of,  all  of  a  sud- 
den the  eel  retrogrades 
upward  from  its  dis- 
mal sepulchre,  strug- 
gling violently  to  es- 
cape. The  Cormorant 
swallows  it  again,  and 
up  again  it  comes,  and 
shows  its  tail  a  foot  or 
more  out  of  its  de- 
stroyer's mouth.  At 
length,  worn  out  with 
perpetual  writhings  and  slidings,  the  eel  is  gulped  down 
into  the  Cormorant's  stomach,  there  to  meet  its  dreaded 
and  inevitable  fate." 

301.  The  Tropic  Bird,  Fig.  154,  is  reckoned  among  the 


Fig.  153 — Cormorant. 


Fig.  154.— Tropic  Bird. 


REPTILES.  18V 

Pelicans.  This  bird  is  noted  for  rapidity  and  endurance 
in  flight.  It  has  been  known  to  be  on  the  wing  continu- 
ously for  several  days  and  nights.  It  sometimes  takes  a 
nap  on  the  back  of  some  turtle  that  it  finds.  The  Frig- 
ate pelican,  or  Man-of-war  Bird,  is  another  tropical  bird 
of  similar  powers  of  flight.  Its  extent  of  wing  is  enor- 
mous. "  Although,  when  stripped  of  its  feathers,"  says 
Wood,  "it  is  hardly  longer  than  a  Pigeon,  yet  no  man 
can  touch  at  the  same  time  the  tips  of  its  extended 
wings."  Under  the  throat  is  a  large  pouch  of  a  deep  red 
color,  which  can  be  distended  with  air  at  pleasure.  Both 
this  and  the  Tropic  Bird  are  fond  of  capturing  the  Fly- 
ing-fish. 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  the  Grallatores  ?  What  are  their  fam- 
ilies ?  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Bustards  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  Great  Bustard  ?  What  of  the  Plovers  ?  What  of  the  Oyster- 
catcher  ?  What  of  the  Lapwing  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Cranes  ? 
What  of  the  Trumpeter  ?  What  of  the  Herons  ?  Of  the  Spoon-bills  ? 
What  are  the  peculiarities  and  habits  of  the  Rooks?  What  singular 
birds  are  mentioned  as  belonging  to  this  family  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Snipes  ?  What  of  the  Curlews  ?  What  of  the  Avocet  ?  What  of 
the  Rail  family  ?  What  of  the  Jacanas  ?  Wh^at  are  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  Natatores  ?  What  are  their  families  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Ducks  and  Geese  ?  What  of  the  two  kinds  of  Ducks  ?  What  of  the 
Swans  ?  What  of  the  Flamingo  ?  What  of  the  family  of  Divers  ? 
What  of  the  Grebes?  Of  the  Auks?  Of  the  Penguins?  Of  the 
Gulls  ?  Of  the  Stormy  Petrel  ?  Of  the  Albatross  ?  Of  the  Terns  ? 
Of  the  Pelicans?  Of  the  Cormorant  ?  Of  the  Tropic  Bird  ?  Of  the 
Frigate  Pelican  ? 


CHAPTER  XYIII. 

REPTILES. 

302.  THE  cold-blooded  division  of  the  Vertebrates  com- 
prises the  Reptiles  and  the  Fishes.  In  the  warm-blood- 
ed division  the  blood  of  each  animal  has  a  certain  natural 
degree  of  heat,  which  is  maintained  quite  uniform  under 


188  NATURAL   HISTOEY. 

exposures  to  a  wide  range  of  temperature  in  the  atmos- 
phere. Thus,  in  man,  the  natural  degree  is  98°  by  Fahr- 
enheit's thermometer,  many  degrees  above  ordinary  sum- 
mer's heat.  This  degree  is  maintained  even  in  the  severe 
cold  of  the  arctic  regions.  There  are  various  expedients 
for  keeping  in  the  heat  made  in  the  blood  of  the  warm- 
blooded Vertebrates.  Hair  and  fur  do  it  in  quadrupeds, 
feathers  in  birds,  and  blubber  in  whales.  Man  does  the 
same  by  making  for  himself  garments  of  materials  which 
are  good  non-conductors  of  heat.  .Now  in  the  cold-blood- 
ed division  there  is  less  heat  made  in  the  blood,  and  their 
coverings  are  not  calculated  to  retain  it.  These  animals, 
therefore,  have  a  tendency  to  take  the  temperature  of 
the  air  or  water  with  which  they  are  surrounded. 

303.  I  will  first  speak  of  Reptiles.    These  are  so  called 
from  the  Latin  word  repto,  to  creep  or  crawl ;  for,  al- 
though some  of  this  class  have  four  feet,  their  limbs  are 
generally  so  short  that  a  portion  of  the  body  is  dragged 
along  upon  the  earth. 

304.  The  skeleton  is  much  more  varied  in  Reptiles 
than  in  the  warm-blooded  Vertebrates.     In  some  of  the 
Snake  group  all  ibtie  parts  of  the  skeleton  are  absent  ex- 
cept the  head,  the  chain  of  vertebrae,  and  the  ribs,  which 
are  very  numerous,  amounting,  in  some  cases,  to  several 
hundred.     While  in  the  Snake  tribe  the  breast-bone  is 
wanting,  in  the  Turtle  tribe  it  is  expanded  into  a  large 
under  shield,  the  ribs  also  expanding  above  into  an  upper 
shield. 

305.  Reptiles  can  execute  less  rapid  and  less  prolonged 
motions  than  warm-blooded  animals.    This  is  because  the 
blood  which  circulates  in  the  muscles  and  in  all  their  or- 
gans is  less  stimulating.     This  can  be  seen  te  be  true  by 
observing  how  the  mode  of  their  circulation  differs  from 
that  of  Mammals  and  Birds.     That  this  may  be  clear  to 
you,  I  will  make  use  of  two  diagrams,  showing  the  plan 
of  the  circulation  in  each. 

306.  The  first  diagram,  Fig.  155,  giving  the  plan  of  the 


EEPTULES. 


189 


155- 


circulation  in  Mammals 
and  Birds,  is  taken  from 
my  First  Book  in  Phys- 
iology. In  this  figure,  in 
which  the  shaded  part 
shows  where  the  blood 
is  dark,  a  is  the  right  au- 
ricle, which  receives  the 
dark  venous  blood  from 
all  parts  of  the  body. 
From  this  it  passes  into  #,  the  right  ventricle,  and  this 
forces  it  out  toward  the  lungs,  c.  Here  it  becomes  red  or 
arterial  by  exposure  to  the  air  which  we  breathe.  It  is 
now  returned  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  and  is  re- 
ceived by  the  left  auricle,  which  passes  it  into  the  left 
ventricle.  From  thence  it  is  sent  to  the  general  system, 
/.  Here  it  becomes  dark  by  being  used,  and  then  re- 
turns to  the  right  auricle,  «,  where  we  began  to  trace  it. 
30V.  The  diagram,  Fig.  156,  is  the  plan  of  the  circula- 

tion in  a  Reptile.  In 
this,  a  is  the  right  au- 
ricle, which  receives 
the  dark  blood  from 
the  general  system,/", 
and  d  the  left  auricle, 
which  receives  the  ar- 
terial or  red  blood 
from  the  lungs,  c.  But 
the  blood  from  the 
two  auricles  mixes  to- 
gether  in  one  ventri- 
cle, 5,  and  this  mixture  of  red  and  dark  blood  goes  alike 
to  the  lungs  and  to  all  the  organs,  as  you  see  represented 
in  the  diagram.  The  dark  shading  shows  where  there  is 
venous  or  dark  blood,  the  light  shading  where  there  is 
the  mixture  of  venous  and  arterial  blood,  and  the  blood 
is  arterial  or  red  where  there  is  no  shading. 


156- 


.    190  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

308.  You  see,  then,  that  the  brain,  muscles,  and  other 
organs  in  the  Reptile  are  stimulated  with  the  mixture, 
which  is  not  so  stimulating  or  life-giving  as  pure  arterial 
blood.     It  is  therefore  a  less  lively  animal  than  those 
whose  organs  have  arterial  blood  continually  pumped 
into  them  by  the  heart.    It  therefore  moves  but  little  and 
slowly.     Its  circulation  is  slow,  and  so  also  is  its  breath- 
ing. 

309.  But,  while  life  is  dull  in  reptiles,  it  is  not  easily  de- 
stroyed.    They  will  bear  being  maimed  to  a  great  ex- 
tent.   If  you  destroy  the  brain  or  spinal  cord  of  a  warm- 
blooded animal,  all  signs  of  life  soon  cease ;  but  if  this  be 
done  to  a  reptile,  motions  can  be  excited  for  a  long  time 
by  pricking,  or  other  modes  of  stimulation.     The  limbs 
of  a  turtle  which  has  been  dead  for  several  days  may  be 
made  to  move  by  pricking  them,  showing  that  there  is 
some  life  in  their  muscles  still.     So,  also,  the  two  parts 
of  a  snake  cut  in  two  will  move  independently  for  some 
time,  and  the  tail  of  a  lizard  will  move  for  some  hours 
after  it  is  cut  off.     The  reptiles  of  temperate  climates 
crawl  into  some  secret  place  as  winter  comes  on,  and  go 
into  a  state  of  perfect  torpor  which  lasts  till  spring.    They 
are  therefore  called  hibernating  animals. 

310.  The  brain  of  reptiles  is  very  small,  for  "they  have 
but  little  thinking  to  do.    They  have  no  special  organ  of 
touch,  and  their  covering  is  such  that  they  can  have  but 
little  sensibility  in  it.     The  sense  of  taste  and  that  of 
smell  are  dull.     Vision  is  not  very  acute,  and  the  appa- 
ratus of  hearing  is  much  less  complete  than  in  the  warm- 
blooded animals. 

311.  Almost  ah1  reptiles  are  carnivorous.     The  turtles 
and  crocodiles  divide  their  food  more  or  less  with  their 
jaws;  but  the  snakes  or  serpents  swallow  their  food 
whole.     In  their  case  the  throat  can  be  so  much  dilated 
that  they  can  swallow  an  animal  larger  than  themselves. 

312.  Reptiles  are  like  birds  in  two  things :  they  do  not 
suckle  their  young,  and  they  produce  them  from  eggs. 


REPTILES.  191 

They  generally  deposit  their  eggs  in  warm  sandy  places, 
leaving  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  warmth  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

313.  There  are  five  orders  of  Reptiles :  1.  The  Turtles 
or  Tortoises.    2.  The  Crocodiles.    3.  The  Lizards.    4.  The 
Serpents.     5.  Tha  Amphibia. 

314.  The  Tortoises  are  unlike  all  other  animals  in  their 
covering.    They  are  in  a  fortified  house  of  bone  and  horn, 
which  they  carry  around  with  them.    Into  this  they  can 
wholly  retire  when  attacked.     In  some  of  the  Land  Tur- 
tles this  covering  is  so  jointed  that  they  can  close  the 
openings  before  and  behind  after  drawing  in  the  head, 
legs,  and  tail,  thus  shutting  the  doors  of  their  portable 
house  against  their  enemies.     The  construction  of  this 
covering  is  worthy  of  examination.     It  is  composed  of 
two  shields,  an  upper  and  a  lower  one.     The  upper  one, 
called  the  carapace,  has  a  coating  of  plates  of  horn.     As 
the  turtle  grows,  each  plate  grows  by  enlargement  around 
its  edge.     The  tortoise-shell,  so  much  used  in  making 
combs,  comes  from  this  coating  in  one  species.     On  re- 
moving this,  we  see  that  the  carapace  is  composed  of  a 
large  number  of  plates  of  bone,  very  nicely  and  firmly 
joined  together.    There  js  a  row  of  eight  plates  through 
the  middle,  and  these  are  appendages  of  the  vertebrae  of 
the  back  of  the  animal.     These  vertebrae  you  see  in  Fig. 
6,  where  the  lower  shield  is  removed,  so  that  you  have  a 
view  of  the  under  surface  of  the  carapace.     As  the  ribs 
extend  from  the  vertebra  they  expand,  thus  making  some 
of  its  side  plates.     The  lower  shield,  called  the  plastron, 
is  the  same  thing  as  the  breast-bone  of  other  animals, 
only  it  is  enormously  large. 

315.  Life  in  these  animals  goes  on  at  a  low  rate,  and 
lasts  a  long  time — in  some  cases  even  over  two  hundred 
years.     Their  sensibilities  are  dull,  and  it  is  very  difficult 
to  kill  them,  as  they  survive  the  severest  injuries.    They 
vary  considerably  in  the  form  of  their  feet  and  of  their 
shell,  especially  the  former,  according  to  their  mode  of 


192  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

living.  There  are  four  families — Land  Tortoises,  Marsh 
Tortoises,  River  Tortoises,  and  Marine  Tortoises  or  Tur- 
tles. 

316.  The  Land  Tortoises  have  short  stumpy  feet,  some- 
what like  those  of  the  Elephant,  the  toes  not  being  sepa- 
rate, and  the  claws  alone  being  apparent.     They  are,  for 
the  most  part,  inhabitants  of  the  warmer  regions,  though 
some  species  live  in  colder  climates,  passing  the  winter, 
however,  in  a  state  of  hibernation.    Some  very  large  spe- 
cies are  found  in  and  near  the  tropics.    Thus,  at  the  Gal- 
lipagos  Islands,  there  are  great  numbers  of  Land  Tor- 
toises weighing  over  two  hundred  pounds.    The  food  of 
the  Land  Tortoises  is  wholly  vegetable.    They  are  quiet, 
inoffensive  animals,  never  making  any  attack,  and  when 
attacked  they  draw  their  extremities  and  head  wholly 
within  their  portable  house. 

317.  The  Marsh  Tortoises  form  an  extensive  family,  dif- 
fused through  the  warmer  countries  of  both  continents. 
They  are  found  in  swamps,  lakes,  ponds,  and  small  riv- 
ers.    They  swim  easily,  as  their  feet  are  expanded,  and 
have  a  web  between  the  toes.     Their  covering  is  not  as 
firm  as  that  of  the  Land  Tortoises.     The  River  Tortoises 
are  another  similar  family,  found  in  the  large  rivers.    The 
American  Snapping  Turtle,  which  devours  such  quanti- 
ties of  young  Alligators,  belongs  to  this  family.     There 
is  a  similar  species  in  the  Nile  equally  destructive  to  the 
young  Crocodiles.     Both  of  these  families  are  carnivo- 
rous, living  on  fish,  reptiles,  birds,  and  insects.    The  bony 
plates  of  the  carapace  of  the  River  Tortoises  are  thinner 
than  those  of  the  Marsh  Tortoises,  and  they  are  some- 
what imperfect.     Besides,  the  carapace  has  a  coating  of 
a  leathery  character  in  place  of  the  horny  plates  of  the 
previously  noticed  families.    These  animals  are  therefore 
sometimes  called  Soft  Tortoises. 

318.  The  Marine  Tortoises  or  Turtles  have  their  feet 
modified  so  as  to  be  really  fins  or  flippers.     The  anterior 
pair  are  most  developed,  as  seen  in  Fig.  157,  the  Green 


EEPTJLES.  193 


Turtle,  and  with  these  the  animal  moves  rapidly  through 
the  water,  they  being  a  pair  of  aquatic  wings.     On  land, 


Fig.  157.— Green  Turtle. 

their  walk  is  an  awkward  shuffle  with  these  flippers. 
They  are  very  convenient  instruments,  however,  in  scoop- 
ing out  holes  in  the  sand  for  their  eggs.  Nearly  two 
hundred  eggs  are  laid  in  one  nest.  When  laid,  they  are 
covered  up  with  the  sand.  The  white  of  these  eggs, 
which  are  highly  prized,  does  not  harden  in  boiling.  The 
Green  Turtle,  the  flesh  of  which  is  considered  so  great  a 
luxury,  is  common  on  the  shores  of  most  of  the  islands 
of  the  East  and  West  Indies.  It  has  been  known  to 
reach  a  weight  of  five  or  six  hundred  pounds.  The  tor- 
toise-shell of  commerce  comes  from  the  Hawksbill  Tur- 
tle. In  this  animal  the  horny  plates  are  large,  and  are 
arranged  like  shingles  on  a  roof. 

319.  Of  the  second  order  of  Reptiles,  the  Crocodiles, 
there  are  two  groups — the  true  Crocodiles,  common  to 
both  hemispheres,  but  most  abundant  in  the  Nile  and 
other  African  rivers,  and  in  the  Ganges ;  and  the  Alliga- 
tors, which  are  confined  to  America.  There  is  not  any 
very  great  difference  between  them  ;  but  the  Crocodiles 
are  more  thoroughly  aquatic  than  the  Alligators,  and 

I 


194 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


therefore  have  their  hind  feet  more  largely  webbed.  In 
the  covering  of  both  there  are  huge  bony  plates  on  the 
back  and  tail,  rising  into  a  prominent  dentated  ridge  on 
the  latter.  This  ridge  is  very  elevated  in  the  Crocodile 
of  the  Ganges,  making  the  tail  a  very  efficient  instrument 
in  swimming.  These  animals  swim,  in  part,  by  the  pad- 
dling operation  of  their  hind  feet,  and  in  part  by  the  scull- 
ing of  the  long,  vertically  flattened  tail. 


Fig.  158. —Crocodile. 

320.  There  is  a  singular  arrangement  of  the  circulation 
in  this  order  of  reptiles.  There  are  two  ventricles  in  the 
heart,  as  in  the  Mammals  and  the  Birds ;  but  the  red  and 
dark  blood  are  mingled  together  a  little  distance  from 
the  heart.  This  is  not  done,  however,  till  those  arteries 
branch  off  which  carry  the  blood  to  the  anterior  part  of 
the  body.  The  result  is,  that  the  head  and  fore  legs  are 
supplied  with  pure  arterial  blood,  while  all  the  posterior 
parts  are  supplied  with  that  mixture  of  red  and  dark 
blood  which  is  supplied  to  all  the  organs  of  the  other 


EEPTILES.  1 95 

reptiles.    Why  this  exception  is  made  in  this  order  we 
know  not. 

321.  In  Fig.  158  (page  194)  is  represented  the  common 
Crocodile.    Its  muzzle  is  more  elongated  than  that  of  the 
Alligators.    That  of  the  Crocodile  of  the  Ganges,  called 
the  Gavial,  is  more  prominent  still,  and  it  is  terminated 
by  a  cartilaginous  or  gristly  protuberance,  in  which  are 
the  openings  of  the  nostrils.     This  animal  is  frequently 
twenty-five  feet  long,  and  is  very  formidable  from  its 
strength  and  ferocity.     It  is  of  great  service  in  devour- 
ing the  dead  bodies  of  men  and  animals  which  are  com- 
mitted to  the  sacred  river,  and  which  would  otherwise 
taint  the  air  in  their  decay. 

322.  The  Alligators  or  Caymans  are  less  aquatic  than 
the  Crocodiles.     They  frequent   swamps   and  marshes 
more  than  rivers.     They  are  very  dexterous  in  catching 
fish.    They  sometimes  drive  a  shoal  of  them  into  a  creek, 
and  then  with  open  mouth  plunge  among  them.     They 
also  catch  pigs,  dogs,  and  other  animals  that  venture  too 
near  the  water. 

Questions. — What  are  the  two  great  classes  of  cold-blooded  Verte- 
brates ?  How  do  they  differ  in  regard  to  heat  from  the  warm-blood- 
ed ?  What  expedients  are  adopted  in  the  latter  to  prevent  the  heat 
from  escaping  ?  What  is  said  of  the  name,  Reptile  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  skeleton  of  reptiles  ?  What  of  their  power  of  motion  ?  De- 
scribe the  circulation  of  the  warm-blooded  Vertebrates.  Describe  that 
of  Reptiles.  What  relation  has  the  peculiarity  of  their  circulation  to 
their  motion  ?  What  is  said  of  their  tenacity  of  life  ?  What  be- 
comes of  them  in  winter  in  temperate  climates  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
nervous  system  of  the  senses  in  reptiles?  What  is  their  food  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  manner  in  which  serpents  eat  ?  In  what  are  reptiles 
like  birds  ?  What  are  the  orders  of  reptiles  ?  Describe  the  covering 
of  Tortoises  ?  What  is  said  of  life  in  them  ?  What  are  their  fami- 
lies ?  What  is  said  of  the  Land  Tortoises  ?  Of  the  Marsh  Tortoises  ? 
Of  the  River  Tortoises  ?  Of  the  Marine  Tortoises  ?  Of  the  Green 
Turtle  ?  What  is  said  of  the  two  groups  of  Crocodiles  ?  What  is  the 
peculiarity  in  the  circulation  in  this  order  ?  What  is  said  of  the  com- 
mon Crocodile  ?  What  of  the  Alligator  ? 


196  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

REPTILES — continued. 

323.  THE  order  of  Lizards  comprises  a  great  variety 
of  animals  exhibiting  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Crocodile  tribe  mingled  with  some  which  are  peculiar  to 
the  Serpents.     They  resemble  the  former  in  their  long 
body,  tapering  off  in  a  tail ;  but,  instead  of  the  large  bony 
plates  of  the  Crocodiles,  they  have  the  small  scales  of  the 
Serpent  tribe ;  and,  though  they  usually  have  four  feet, 
in  some  of  them  there  is  but  one  pair,  and  in  others  the 
feet  are  so  short,  and  so  covered  up  by  the  skin,  that  the 
animal  looks  entirely  like  a  snake.     There  is  much  vari- 
ety in  the  habits  of  this  order.     Some  are  more  or  less 
aquatic ;  some  are  terrestrial,  digging  holes  in  the  ground 
as  places  of  retreat ;  and  others  are  wholly  arboreal. 
Their  colors  have  a  relation  to  their  habits ;  the  ground 
Lizards  being  brown  and  speckled,  while  the  tree  Lizards 
have  bright  colors,  green  predominating.    When  the  sun 
wakes  up  the  latter  to  activity,  their  quick  movements 
make  the  play  of  their  brilliant  colors  very  beautiful. 
The  principal  families  in  this  order  are  the  following:  1. 
The  Chameleons.     2.  The  Geckos.     3.  The  Iguanas.     4. 
The  Monitors.     5.  The  true  Lizards.     6.  The  Snake  Liz- 
ards.    7.  The  Naked-eyed  Lizards. 

324.  The   Chameleons    are   distributed  through  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  Old  World,  but  are  not  found  in  the 
New.     They  are  distinguished  from  the  other  families 
by  very  marked  peculiarities.    Their  bodies  are  flattened 
sideways,  and  there  is  a  sharp  ridge  along  the  length  of 
the  back.    Of  the  five  toes  of  each  foot,  two  are  directed 
backward,  so  that  the  animal  can  grasp  firmly  the  branch- 
es of  trees  in  climbing.     Its  tapering  tail  is  also  prehen- 
sile, and  is  used  in  its  arboreal  mode  of  life  as  the  Spider 


REPTILES. 


197 


Monkeys  use  theirs  (§  53).  '  Its  movements  are  slow. 
No  part  of  it  moves  quickly  but  its  tongue.  This  is  a 
singular  instrument.  It  is  a  long  hollow  tube  with  a 
swollen  fleshy  extremity,  which  is  always  covered  with  a 
glutinous  substance.  In  catching  insects  it  is  darted  out 
and  returned  into  the  mouth  with  a  velocity  which  al- 
most eludes  the  eye,  the  glutinous  secretion  making  the 
insect  to  adhere  to  the  tongue.  The  eyes  of  the  Chame- 
leon can  be  moved  independently  of  each  other,  which 
gives  the  animal  a  strange  aspect,  one  eye,  perhaps,  be- 
ing directed  forward,  while  the  other  is  directed  back- 
ward; The  skin  is  covered  with  horny  granulations. 
The  changeableness  of  the  color  of  the  skin^  has  been  ex- 
aggerated ;  still,  the  change  is  perceptible  through  vari- 
ous shades  from  light  to  dark,  owing  to  changes  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  granules  in  the  skin,  and  in  the  amount 
of  blood  in  them.  The  lungs  are  large,  and  there  are  air- 
sacs  connected  with  them  in  various  parts  of  the  body. 
When  these  are  full  of  air  the  animal  looks  bloated,  but 
the  next  minute  it  may  appear  lean  and  shrunken,  having 
emptied  these  sacs.  The  story  that  the  Chameleon  lives 
on  air  gained  currency  partly  from  this  circumstance, 
and  partly  from  the  almost  invisible  quickness  of  motion 
of  the  tongue,  really  invisible  to  the  careless  observer. 
The  common  Chameleon,  Fig.  159,  abounds  in  Northern 
Africa,  the  south  of  Spain,  and  Sicily. 


Fig.  159.— Chameleon. 


198 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


325.  The  Geckos,  Fig.  160,  are  nocturnal  Lizards,  very 
numerous  in  the  southern  portion  of  Asia.    They  are  con- 


Fig.  160,-Gecko. 

cealed  in  crevices  in  the  day,  but  come  forth  at  night  in 
search  of  their  insect  prey.  They  run  about  on  the 
smooth  walls  and  ceilings  with  perfect  ease,  their  feet 
being  furnished  with  an  apparatus  like  a  boy's  sucker. 

326.  The  Iguana  family  is  a  very  extensive  one.     It 
contains  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  species,  many  of 


Fig.  lul. — Tuberculated  Iguana. 


REPTILES.  199 

which  are  among  the  largest  of  the  Lizard  tribe.  The 
general  aspect  of  the  true  Iguanas,  which  are  found  only 
in  America,  can  be  seen  in  Fig.  161  (p.  198),  theTubercu- 
lated  Iguana.  They  have  a  long  flexible  tail,  a  crested 
ridge  along  the  back  and  tail,  and  a  dewlap  under  the 
throat  which  the  animal  can  distend  with  air.  The  Tu- 
berculated  Iguana,  sometimes  reaching  even  six  feet  in 
length,  is  found  in  South  America  and  the  West  Indies. 
With  this  family  is  allied  the  fossil  Iguanodon,  whose  re- 
mains show  that  it  could  not  Have  been  less  than  forty 
feet  in  length.  A  very  harmless  little  Lizard,  with  the 
terrible  name  of  Flying  Dragon,  may  be  considered  as 
belonging  to  this  family,  because  it  has  the  characteristic 
scales  of  the  Iguanas  and  the  dewlap.  It  has,  like  the 
Flying  Squirrel,  a  wing-like  expansion  of  the  skin  on  each 
side  of  the  body,  and  uses  it  for  a  similar  purpose.  Some 
of  the  ribs  of  the  animal  extend  out  as  a  frame-work  to 
these  wings.  When  running  about  on  the  branches  of  a 
tree  they  are  folded  to  the  side,  but  when  it  wishes  to  go 
from  one  tree  to  another,  or  to  descend  to  the  ground, 
it  raises  the  ribs,  thus  expanding  the  so-called  wings. 
This  animal  is  found  in  the  Asiatic  Archipelago. 

327.  The  remaining  families  of  Lizards   have   slen- 
der tongues,  which  are  also  more  or  less  forked.    The 
family  of  Monitors  includes  some  of  the  largest  of  the 
Lizards.     They  are  graceful  and  agile  animals,  living  on 
large  insects,  eggs,  birds,  small  Mammalia,  reptiles,  and 
fish.     The  Monitor  of  the  Nile,  which  is  about  six  feet 
long,  is  very  destructive  to  the  eggs  and  the  young  of  the 
Crocodile.    Its  name  of  Monitor  is  derived  from  the  hiss- 
ing noise  which  it  makes  when  it  sees  a  Crocodile  ap- 
proaching, thus  giving  a  warning  to  any  one  that  hap- 
pens to  be  near.     There  are  Monitors,  also,  in  this  coun- 
try, which  give  a  similar  warning  of  the  approach  of  the 
Alligator. 

328.  The  true  Lizards  are  bright -eyed,  slender,  and 
lively  little  animals,  with  brilliant  colors,  especially  those 


200 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


that  live  in  verdant  places.  They  are  found  in  all  warm 
countries  except  Australia  and  the  Polynesian  Islands. 
Some  are  natives,  also,  of  temperate  climates,  passing  the 
winter  in  a  torpid  state.  The  common  Lizard,  Fig.  162, 


Fig.  162. — Common  Lizard. 

is  only  about  six  inches  long.  In  all  the  animals  of  this 
family  the  tail  is  exceedingly  brittle,  snapping  off  like 
glass  even  with  a  slight  touch.  It  grows  out  again,  how- 
ever, and  if  the  tail  be  cracked  without  being  broken  off, 
a  new  tail  will  spring  from  the  crack,  so  that  the  annual 
will  have  thus  a  forked  tail. 

329.  In  the  family  of  Snake  Lizards  we  find  a  series  of 
forms,  in  which  we  see  a  gradual  transition  from  the  or- 
der of  Lizards  to  that  of  Serpents.  In  some  of  these  an- 
imals there  are  four  feet,  as  seen  in  Fig.  163,  the  Snake 
Lizard  of  the  South  of  Africa.  Others  have  but  two  feet. 


Fig.  163 — Snake  Lizard. 

Others  still  have  nothing  but  the  mere  rudiments  of  feet 
concealed  in  the  skin.  Of  this  latter  kind  is  the  Blind- 
worm  or  Slow-worm.  This  animal,  which  is  about  a  foot 
in  length,  is  as  brittle  as  the  tail  of  the  true  Lizards.  The 


REPTILES.  201 

Glass  Snake  of  this  country  is  also  one  of  the  same  kind 
of  Snake  Lizards. 

330.  In  the  family  of  Naked-eyed  Lizards  the  approach 
to  the  Serpents  is  still  greater.     Not  only  is  the  body 
snake-like,  but  the  eyes  are,  as  in  the  Snakes,  destitute 
of  eyelids,  and  covered  only  with  a  transparent  portion 
of  the  skin.     Most  of  the  species  of  this  family  are  na- 
tives of  Australia,  and  only  one  is  found  in  America. 

331.  We  now  come  to  the  order  of  Snakes  or  Serpents. 
The  grand  peculiarities  of  this  order  are  the  total  ab- 
sence of  limbs,  the  great  flexibility  of  the  chain  of  verte- 
brae, which  runs  through  the  whole  length  of  the  animal, 
and  the  covering  of  scales.    Over  the  scales  spreads  very 
closely  a  thin  delicate  skin,  which  is  shed  every  year  or 
oftener,  a  new  one  forming  in  its  place.     The  separation 
is  begun  at  the  head,  and  the  skin,  in  being  cast  off,  is 
turned  inside  out,  as  we  sometimes  turn  the  finger  of  a 
glove.     The  Serpents  of  temperate  climates  hibernate, 
and  on  waking  up  in  the  spring  cast  off  their  skins. 

332.  The  skeleton  of  a  serpent  is  very  simple,  consist- 
ing only  of  the  skull,  the  column  of  vertebra,  and  the 
ribs.     There  is  no  breast-bone.     Each  vertebra  is  united 
by  a  ball  and  socket  joint  with  the  one  next  to  it.     It  is 
this  arrangement  that  enables  the  animal  to  execute  its 
free  and  graceful  movements.     The  vertebraB,  in  some 
cases,  number  as  high  .as  three  hundred. 

333.  The  ordinary  forward  movement  of  the  Serpent 
is  made  by  the  ribs,  the  scale  which  is  at  the  end  of  each 
one  of  them  acting  as  a  foot  on  the  ground.    These  scales 
being  successively  pushed  backward  against  the  earth, 
the  annual  is  moved  forward.    But  sometimes  it  gathers 
itself  up  into  a  coil,  and  then,  by  the  sudden  straighten- 
ing out  of  its  whole  body,  it  can  at  once  reach  more  than 
its  whole  length,  leaping  upon  its  prey. 

334.  The  senses  of  the  Serpents  are  not  highly  devel- 
oped.    Sight  is  the  most  perfect  of  all  its  senses.     The 
eyes,  however,  are  small,  without  eyelids,  being  covered 

12 


202  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

with  a  transparent  membrane  which  is  shed  with  the 
skin.  The  tongue  is  soft,  and  forked  at  its  end,  and  it  is 
not  very  sensitive.  The  smell  and  the  touch  are  both 
rather  dull.  Serpents  have  teeth,  but  not  for  mastication. 
They  only  serve  to  retain  their  food. 

335.  The  species  of  this  order  may  be  grouped  in  two 
classes — the  Viperine  and  the  Colubrine  Snakes.     The 
Viperine  Serpents  have  a  peculiar  venomous  apparatus. 
There  are  two  teeth  or  fangs  in  the  upper  jaw,  connect- 
ed with  the  gland  in  which  the  poison  is  made.     They 
are  movable,  and  when  the  animal  does  not  wish  to  use 
them,  they  lie  backward,  concealed  along  the  roof  of  the 
mouth.     When  the  serpent  bites,  he  throws  these  fangs 
forward,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  muscle,  pressing  on  the 
gland,  forces  out  the  venom,  which  passes  along  a  canal 
in  the  fang.     Most  of  the  Colubrine  Snakes  are  not  ven- 
omous, and  those  which  are  have  stationary  instead  of 
movable  fangs. 

336.  There  are  two  families  of  the  Yiperine  Snakes — 
the  ViperidaB  and  the  CrotalidaB.     The  ViperidaB  belong 
exclusively  to  the  eastern  hemisphere.    Those  of  the  trop- 
ical regions  are  the  most  venomous.     To  this  family  be- 
longs the  Horned  Viper,  so  called  from  a  small  pointed 
horn  above  each  eye.     This  is  supposed  to  be  the  Asp, 
from  whose  bite  Cleopatra  died.     The  Puff  Adders  of 
Africa  also  belong  to  this  family. 

337.  Of  the  family  Crotalidae,  the  true  Rattlesnakes, 
Fig.  164  (p.  203),  are  confined  to  this  country,  but  there 
are  other  species  found  in  Asia.     The  rattle  consists  of 
a  number  of  thin,  horny  appendages,  wThich  are  loosely 
jointed  together,  and  which  make  a  rustling  noise  when 
the  snake  moves.     The  number  of  joints  is  increased,  up 
to  a  certain  amount  at  least,  with  each  casting  of  the  skin. 

338.  The  Colubrine  Snakes  have  two  families — the  Co- 
lubridse  or  Colubers,  and  the  Boida3  or  Boas.     The  fami- 
ly of  Colubers  contains  more  than  half  the  whole  number 
of  species  of  Snakes.     Of  the  comparatively  few  of  these 


REPTILES. 


203 


Fig.  164.— Rattlesnake. 


which  are  venomous,  the  Cobra  di  Capello  of  India,  Fig. 
165,  is  the  most  noted.  This  belongs  to  the  Hooded 
Snakes,  so  called  from  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  skin 


Fig.  166.— Cobra  di  CapeUo. 


204  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

of  the  neck,  by  which,  when  the  animal  is  irritated,  it  is 
made  to  take  the  form  of  a  hood.  While  the  Colubers 
are  very  widely  distributed  in  the  earth,  the  Boas  are 
confined  to  hot  climates.  The  latter  are  Serpents  of  enor- 
mous size  and  great  muscular  strength ;  and  from  their 
power  of  coiling  round  their  victims  and  compressing 
them,  they  are  able  to  overcome  animals  of  very  large 
dimensions.  After  destroying  the  life  of  their  victims 
by  compression,  they  proceed  to  swallow  them  whole ; 
and  such  is  the  power  of  distention  in  their  throats,  that 
they  can  do  this  with  men  and  even  with  cattle.  The 
usual  length  of  Boas  is  from  fifteen  to  thirty  feet,  but 
there  is  a  well-authenticated  account  of  the  killing  of  one 
which  measured  sixty-two  feet. 

339.  There  remains  to  be  considered  another  order  of 
reptiles — the  Amphibia  (d^i€ioe,  amphibios,  having  a 
double  life).    They  are  sometimes,  also,  called  Batrachia. 
These  reptiles,  including  Frogs,  Toads,  Salamanders,  etc., 
are  intermediate  between  the  other  orders  of  reptiles  and 
fishes.     When  first  born,  they  are,  like  fishes,  possessed 
of  gills,  and  live  wholly  in  the  water.     Then  a  series  of 
changes  takes  place,  the  animal  being  at  length  endowed 
with  lungs  in  place  of  gills,  and  fitted  to  live  on  land. 
This  may  be  exemplified  by  reference  to  the  Frog,  which 
is  at  first  a  Tadpole,  living  in  the  water,  having  fringed 
gills  and  a  long  tail,  with  which  it  swims  with  considera- 
ble agility.     It  goes  through  a  succession  of  changes,  in 
which  it  loses  its  tail  and  its  gills,  and  gains  four  legs 
and  a  pair  of  lungs.     You  will  find  these  changes  repre- 
sented in  my  "  Human  Physiology,"  page  113.    Some  of 
the  animals  of  this  order  do  not  lose  their  gills  in  the 
transformation,  but,  in  their  perfect  state,  have  -both  gills 
and  lungs.     These,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  are 
amphibious,  or  double  lived. 

340.  In  their  perfect  or  mature  state  the  Amphibia 
are,  in  most  respects,  like  the  reptiles  which  we  have  al- 
ready noticed,  and  therefore  are  properly  classed  with 


REPTILES.  205 

them.  They  differ  from  them  in  some  respects,  a  few  of 
which  I  will  notice.  Prominent  among  these  is  the  se- 
ries of  changes  in  passing  to  their  mature  state,  of  which 
I  have  just  spoken.  The  reptiles  of  the  other  orders  are 
covered  with  plates,  or  shields,  or  scales ;  but  the  Am- 
phibia have  a  smooth  skin,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
species,  whose  scales  are  much  like  those  of  a  fish.  This 
skin  is  in  many  cases  moist,  and  in  some  the  secretion 
which  makes  it  so  is  irritating  to  one  who  handles  the 
animal.  The  Amphibia  have  no  ribs,  and  therefore,  not 
having  the  means  of  dilating  the  chest,  must  swallow  air 
as  they  swallow  food,  directing  the  one  to  the  lungs  and 
the  other  to  the  stomach.  You  can  therefore  suffocate  a 
Frog  or  any  animal  of  this  order  by  wedging  its  mouth 
wide  open ;  that  is,  you  prevent  the  air  from  going  into 
its  lungs  as  effectually  as  it  is  done  with  most  other  an- 
imals by  closing  the  passage  to  the  lungs.  There  is  one 
other  order  of  reptiles  of  which  the  same  is  true — the 
Tortoises.  This  is  partly  because  the  ribs  are  joined  to 
the  carapace  (§  314),  and  therefore  are  not  movable,  and 
partly  because  the  plastron  below  does  not  permit  that 
protrusion  of  the  abdomen  which  we  see  always  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  a  diaphragm.  No  reptiles  have 
a  diaphragm,  but  all  except  the  Tortoises  and  the  Am- 
phibia can  dilate  the  lungs  by  means  of  their  ribs.  The 
feet  of  the  Amphibia  are  without  claws.  Their  eggs 
have  no  hard  covering  or  shell.  They  are  usually  de- 
posited in  the  water,  even  in  the  case  of  those  that  live 
mostly  on  the  land.  They  are  enveloped  in  a  glutinous 
matter,  which  unites  them  in  masses,  or  in  chains,  the 
latter  looking  like  necklaces  of  black  beads. 

341.  The  tongues  of  the  Batrachians  are  commonly 
large  and  fleshy.  In  the  Frogs  and  Toads  there  is  a  very 
peculiar  arrangement.  The  tongue  is  fastened  to  the 
front  of  the  jaw,  and  its  tip  extends  backward  toward 
the  throat.  It  is  covered  with  a  slimy  substance,  as  the 
end  of  the  Chameleon's  tongue  is  (§  324),  and  for  a  sim- 


206  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ilar  purpose.  Like  the  tongue  of  that  animal,  it  is  dart- 
ed out  and  returned  with  such  velocity,  in  catching  in- 
sects, that  we  must  be  very  quick  of  sight  to  see  the 
thing  done.  Even  the  nimble  Fly  that  comes  near  to  the 
lazy  Toad  is  not  quick  enough  to  escape  its  tongue. 

342.  The  chief  families  in  this  order  are,  1.  The  Rani- 
dae,  or  Frogs.     2.  The  Bufonidae,  or  Toads.     3.  The  Sala- 
inandridae,  or  Salamanders.     4.  The  Sirenidae,  or  Sirens ; 
and,  5.  The  Apoda,  or  Footless  Amphibia. 

343.  The  Frogs,  although  good  swimmers,  and  found 
in  the  neighborhood  of  water,  pass  most  of  their  time  on 
land,  catching  insects  with  their  tongues.    They  have 
teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.     Their  hind  legs  are  long,  and 
they  are  therefore  good  at  leaping.     The  noisy  Bull-frog 
is  found  only  in  North  America.     It  lives  on  fish  and 
snakes  as  well  as  insects.     The  Edible  or  Green  Frog 
abounds  in  Europe,  and  is  thought  much  of  as  an  article 
for  the  table.     In  some  places  it  is  fattened  in  "  frogger- 
ies"  for  this  purpose.    The  Tree  Frogs  are  arboreal,  as 
their  name  indicates.    To  enable  them  to  retain  their 
position  easily  as  they  leap  about  among  the  branches, 
their  toes  have  little  suction  pads,  similar  to  those  of  the 
Geckos  (§  325),  which,  to  make  them  the  more  efficient, 
are  always  covered  with  a  glutinous  secretion.    Like  the 
common  Frogs,  they  breed  in  the  water,  and  bury  them- 
selves in  the  mud  for  their  winter's  sleep. 

344.  The  Toads  have  no  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  as  the 
Frogs  do.     They  have  also  shorter  legs,  and  therefore 
have  less  power  of  leaping.     The  skin  has  wart-like  pro- 
jections, from  which  an  acrid  fluid  is  secreted.    The  Su- 
rinam Toad,  which  is  put  by  some  into  a  separate  family, 
is  a  very  singular  animal.    It  has  no  tongue,  and  its  hind 
feet  are  webbed.     It  is  found  in  dark  corners  about 
houses  in  Guiana  and  Surinam.    Its  eggs  are  hatched  in 
a  curious  way.     The  male  places  them  in  little  pits  on 
the  back  of  the  female,  each  pit  having  a  lid ;  and,  when 
hatched,  the  little  Toads,  lifting  the  lids,  hop  out.    There 


REPTILES. 


207 


is  a  small  Frog  in  Venezuela  that  has  a  similar  contriv- 
ance, hatching  its  eggs  in  a  pouch  on  its  back. 

345.  The  common  Newt,  Fig.  166,  is  a  specimen  of  the 


Fig.  1C6 — Common  Newt. 

Salamander  family.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  Tadpoles  and 
worms,  which  it  eats  with  a  peculiar  quick  snap.  These 
animals  are,  you  see,  much  like  the  Lizards  in  shape; 
but  they  are  considered  as  belonging  to  this  order,  be- 
cause they  go  through  with  the  changes  spoken  of  in 
§  339.  The  true  Salamander  is  a  land  animal  of  the  same 
general  character  with  the  Water  Newt,  but  having  a 
rounded  tail.  The  stories  about  its  being  capable  of  liv- 
ing in  the  midst  of  fire  are  wholly  unfounded. 

346.  The  Sirens  have  only  the  anterior  legs  developed, 
and  that  only  to  a  small  extent.  They  are  found  princi- 
pally in  the  marshy  rice-fields  of  the  Southern  States  of 
this  country.  One  species  sometimes  reaches  a  length 
of  three  feet.  The  Footless  family  contains  but  a  sin- 
gle genus — the  Blind  Newt,  or  Naked  Serpent.  Cuvier 
placed  it  among  the  Serpents  on  account  of  its  snake-like 
form.  But  it  has  no  scales,  and  it  is  found  to  undergo 
the  metamorphosis,  or  change  of  form,  common  to  all  the 
Amphibia. 


208  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  the  Lizard  tribe  ?  What  are  the  chief 
families  ?  Where  are  the  Chameleons  found  ?  What  are  their  char- 
acteristics ?  What  is  said  of  their  tongues  ?  Of  their  eyes  ?  Of  their 
changing  color  ?  Of  their  air-sacs  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Geckos  ? 
What  of  the  Iguana  family?  Of  the  Iguanodon?  Of  the  Flying 
Dragon  ?  Of  the  Monitors  ?  What  is  said  of  the  true  Lizards  ? 
What  of  the  Snake  Lizards  ?  Of  the  Naked-eyed  Lizards  ?  What 
are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Snakes  or  Serpents  ?  What  is  said  of  their 
skeleton  ?  How  does  a  serpent  execute  its  movements  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  senses  of  Serpents  ?  What  are  the  two  classes  of  Serpents  ? 
What  is  the  great  peculiarity  of  the  Viperine  class  ?  What  are  its  two 
families  ?  What  animals  are  mentioned  as  belonging  to  the  Viperi- 
da3  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Crotalida  ?  What  are  the  two  families  of 
the  Colubrine  Snakes  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Colubers  ?  What  of  the 
Boas  ?  What  does  the  order  of  Amphibia  include  ?  From  what  does 
their  name  come  ?  What  is  said  of  their  metamorphosis  ?  How  do 
they  differ  from  other  reptiles  ?  What  is  said  of  their  tongues  ? 
What  are  their  families  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Frogs  ?  Of  the  Toads  ? 
Of  the  common  Newt  ?  Of  the  Salamanders  ?  Of  the  Sirens  ? 


CHAPTER  XX. 

FISHES. 

347.  THE  Fishes  constitute  the  second  division  of  cold- 
blooded Vertebrates.    They  are  the  only  vertebrated  an- 
imals that  are  fitted  to  live  entirely  in  the  water.     All 
the  peculiarities  of  their  structure  have  reference  to  this 
mode  of  life.     These  I  will  proceed  to  point  out. 

348.  All  animals  must  breathe  in  order  to  live ;  that 
is,  they  can  not  live  unless  they  have  the  blood  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  air.     This  is  as  true  of  Fishes  as  it  is 
of  other  animals.     They  breathe  the  air  mingled  with 
water,  and  can  not  live  in  water  that  has  no  air  in  it. 
This  can  be  proved  by  experiment.     If  a  fish  be  put  into 
a  close  vessel,  it  soon  uses  up  all  the  air  in  the  water ; 
and  it  dies  if  more  air  be  not  introduced  into  the  water 
by  unclosing  the  vessel.     A  fish  dying  in  this  way  may 
be  truly  said  to  be  drowned. 


FISHES.  209 

349.  The  Fish  has  not  lungs,  for  these  are  organs  which 
are  fitted  to  introduce  air  alone  to  the  blood.    But  it  has 
gittS)  which  are  fitted  to  have  the  blood  in  them  acted 
upon  by  the  air  that  is  mingled  with  water.    These  gills 
are  fringes  which  are  made  up  of  very  minute  blood-ves- 
sels.   There  are  commonly  four  of  them,  fixed  to  some 
arches  of  bone ;  and  they  are  covered  on  the  outside  by 
a  lid,  called  the  operculum.    In  order  to  have  the  air  in 
the  water  act  on  the  blood  in  them,  the  water  is  taken 
into  the  mouth,  and  then  passes  out  through  these  fringes. 
If  you  watch  fishes  in  an  aquarium,  you  will  see  the  mouth 
constantly  opened  to  take  in  the  water,  and  the  opercu- 
lum as  constantly  raised  to  let  it  out. 

350.  When  a  fish  is  taken  out  of  the  water  it  really 
dies  for  want  of  air,  although  it  is  in  the  midst  of  a  plenty 
of  it.    The  explanation  is  this :  the  fringes  of  the  gills 
are  kept  apart  by  the  water  while  the  fish  is  in  its  native 
element ;  but,  when  taken  out  of  it,  the  fringes  fall  to- 
gether, and  soon  become  dry.    When  they  are  in  this 
condition  the  blood  will  not  circulate  freely  in  them,  and 
what  blood  is  there  is  not  acted  upon  by  the  air.    In 
agreement  with  this  explanation  we  find  that  those  fishes 
which  live  the  shortest  time  out  of  the  water  have  their 
gills  most  exposed,  while  those  that  live  a  longer  time 
have  their  gill-openings  narrow,  thus  tending  to  keep  the 
fringes  moist.    In  some  there  is  an  especial  arrangement 
for  moistening  them,  and  in  such  a  case  the  fish  can  live 
in  air  quite  a  long  time.    Dr.  Carpenter  states  that  some 
fishes  having  this  arrangement  are  accustomed  to  leave 
the  water  and  crawl  about  in  the  grass  or  on  the  ground. 

351.  The  plan  of  the  circulation  in  the  Fish  is  peculiar. 
In  the  Mammals  and  Birds  there  is  a  double  heart,  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  155.     In  Reptiles  the  heart  is  double 
only  so  far  as  the  auricles  are  concerned,  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  156.     In  Fishes  the  heart  is  single,  having  but  one 
auricle  and  one  ventricle.     The  blood  passes  from  the 
ventricle  to  the  gills.    Here  it  becomes  arterial  blood,  as 


210  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  blood  of  Mammals,  Birds,  and  Reptiles  does  in  the 
lungs.  But,  while  their  blood  returns  to  the  heart  from 
the  lungs  before  it  is  distributed  over  the  system,  the 
blood  of  the  Fish  is  distributed  directly  from  the  gills. 

352.  The  circulation  of  Fishes  is  not  as  active  as  that 
of  Mammals  and  Birds,  and  their  blood  is  cold  like  that 
of  Reptiles.     We  can  readily  see  why  it  is  best  that  it 
should  be  cold.     There  are  only  two  ways  in  which  it 
could  be  kept  warm,  like  that  of  warm-blooded  animals. 
One  is  by  having  a  covering  of  feathers  or  of  fur,  as  in 
the  case  of  animals  living  in  air.     But  such  a  covering 
would  interfere  very  much  with  swimming.     Another 
way  to  retain  the  heat  would  be  to  have,  like  the  whales, 
a  thick  layer  of  fat  under  the  skin.     This  would  be  very 
burdensome ;  and,  besides,  man  does  not  need  such  a  sup- 
ply of  fat  and  oil  as  this  arrangement  in  the  Fishes  would 
give  him. 

353.  The  shape  of  the  Fish  is  such  as  to  let  it  move  eas- 
ily through  the  water.     It  has,  commonly,  a  long,  spin- 
dle-like shape,  with  an  even  surface.     It  has  no  neck, 
chiefly  because  any  irregularity  in  its  surface  would  hin- 
der its  rapidity  of  motion.     Its  outer  covering  favors  its 
gliding  through  the  water,  for  it  is  generally  composed 
of  smooth  scales,  one  overlapping  another,  like  shingles 
or  tiles.     Then  there  is  a  slimy,  oily  secretion  over  the 
whole  surface,  helping  it  to  move  smoothly  through  the 
water. 

354.  The  Fish  is  nearly  of  the  same  specific  gravity  with 
water.     It  is  therefore  obliged  to  make  very  little  effort 
in  going  upward.    It  is  in  strong  contrast  with  the  Birds 
in  this  respect.     A  bird,  in  mounting  upward,  exerts 
great  force  with  its  broad  wings  and  its  large  muscles, 
because  it  is  in  an  element  which  is  so  much  lighter  than 
itself.    But  as  the  fish  is  in  an  element  only  a  little  light- 
er than  itself,  it  needs  but  a  small  apparatus  to  move  in 
it,  and,  accordingly,  its  tail  and  fins  are  much  smaller  in 
proportion  to  its  bulk  than  are  the  wings  of  birds  in  pro- 


FISHES.  211 


portion  to  theirs.  For  the  same  reason,  while  man  can 
swim  with  his  hands  and  feet,  he  can  not  fly.  The  Fly- 
ing Fish,  Fig.  167,  is  enabled  to  fly  by  having  fins  which 
approach  in  extent  the  wings  of  a  bird. 


Fig.  167 Flying  Fish. 

355.  Besides,  most  fishes  have  a  peculiar  contrivance 
for  enabling  them  to  rise  and  fall  in  the  water  easily.    It 
is  a  bladder  of  air  which  the  fish  has  the  power  of  com- 
pressing or  enlarging  at  pleasure.     If  the  fish  wishes  to 
go  down  rapidly  in  the  water,  it  compresses  this  air-blad- 
der, and  so  increases  its  specific  gravity.    If,  now,  it  wish- 
es to  rise,  it  takes  off  the  pressure  from  the  air-bladder, 
which  therefore  enlarges  to  its  former  dimensions,  and 
lessens  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fish,  or,  in  other  words, 
makes  its  bulk  greater,  while  the  weight  remains  the 
same.     Sometimes  the  fish  loses  its  power  of  compress- 
ing the  air-bladder,  and  then  it  is  so  light  all  the  time 
that  it  has  no  power  to  go  down  in  the  water.     A  gen- 
tleman had  a  Goldfish  which  swam  with  its  belly  upward, 
probably  from  a  wrong  position  of  the  air-bladder. 

356.  The  chief  agent  in  swimming  in  the  Fish  is  the 
tail,  which  acts  like  a  sculling-oar,  moving  to  the  one  side 
and  the  other  alternately.    It  is  terminated,  for  this  pur- 


212  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

pose,  with  a  considerable  finny  expansion,  consisting  of  a 
skin,  over  a  frame-work  which  is  sometimes  bony,  and 
sometimes  cartilaginous  or  gristly.  It  is  constructed, 
therefore,  very  much  like  the  whig  of  a  bat.  The  fins 
are  similarly  constructed.  These  generally  act  chiefly  as 
balancers  and  directors  of  the  movement,  while  the  scull- 
ing tail  propels.  That  the  side  or  pectoral  fins,  however, 
have  considerable  agency  in  propelling,  can  be  seen  very 
readily,  if  you  watch  the  movements  of  fishes  in  an  aqua- 
rium. They  obviously  narrow  and  widen  as  they  are 
moved,  widening  when  they  make  a  propelling  stroke. 

357.  The  skeletons  of  Fishes  are  not  as  firm  as  those 
of  other  Vertebrates.    In  some,  even,  they  are  not  real 
bone,  but  are  cartilaginous  or  gristly.    The  reason  of  this 
difference  is  plain.    As  the  Fish  moves  in  an  element  of 
nearly  the  same  specific  gravity  with  itself,  it  puts  forth 
but  little  strength  in  its  movements.    The  points  of  sup- 
port, therefore,  for  the  muscles  need  not  to  be  so  firm  as 
they  are  in  animals  living  in  air  and  exerting  motions 
that  require  considerable  force,  such  as  springing  from 
the  ground,  grasping,  flying,  etc. 

358.  We  see  a  marked  adaptation  in  the  Fish  to  its 
mode  of  life  in  the  organs  of  sense  and  the  brain.     Its 
life  is  passed  mostly  in  obtaining  its  food  and  in  escaping 
from  its  enemies.     Its  life  is  a  lazy  one  compared  with 
that  of  animals  that  run,  and  dig,  and  scratch,  and  climb, 
and  fly.    It  shows,  neither,  any  remarkable  instincts.     It 
therefore  does  not  need  much  of  a  brain,  for  its  range  of 
thought  is  very  limited ;  neither  does  it  require   acute- 
ness  in  the  senses  to  meet  its  wants.     Its  brain  is  there- 
fore smahVand  the  organs  of  sense  are  not  as  fully  devel- 
oped as  in  some  other  animals.     It  has  little  sense  of 
touch,  and  it  is  mostly  confined  to  the  lips.     The  fila- 
ments which  some  have  about  the  mouth  are  probably 
organs  of  touch,  informing  of  the  contact  of  bodies  just 
as  the  whiskers  of  a  cat  do.     The  eyes  of  a  fish  are  large 
and  nearly  immovable.     As  they  are  lubricated  by  the 


FISHES.  213 

water,  they  need  no  eyelids  and  no  tear-apparatus,  and 
accordingly  have  none.  For  protection  of  the  eye  the 
skin  is  continued  over  it,  but  it  is  so  thin  that  the  light 
is  readily  transmitted  through  it.  The  organs  of  the 
sense  of  smell  are  better  developed  than  those  of  any 
other  sense,  and  its  smell  is  therefore  acute,  undoubtedly 
to  aid  it  in  the  search  of  its  food.  Its  sense  of  taste,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  dull,  probably  because,  for  the  most 
part,  the  food  is  swallowed  whole,  and  is  not  detained 
long  in  the  mouth. 

359.  Fishes  are  very  voracious,  and  their  food  is  most- 
ly animal,  few,  comparatively,  feeding  upon  vegetables. 
Some  live  on  the  soft-bodied  animals  floating  in  great 
numbers  in  the  sea,  of  which  I  shall  treat  in  another  part 
of  this  book.     Others  live  on  shell-fish,  and  animals  that 
are  covered  with  a  hard  crust,  such  as  lobsters,  crabs, 
etc.    Many  fishes  in  fresh  water  live  on  worms  and  the 
grubs  of  insects.    Then,  too,  fishes  feed  to  a  large  extent 
on  fishes  that  are  smaller  than  themselves.     In  this  re- 
spect such  fishes  have  a  resemblance  to  the  carnivorous 
Mammals,  Birds,  and  Reptiles.      It  is  stated  that,  "  at  a 
lecture  delivered  before  the  Zoological  Society  of  Dublin, 
Dr.  Houston  exhibited,  as  '  a  fair  sample  of  a  fish's  break- 
fast,' a  Frog-fish  two  and  a  half  feet  long,  in  the  stomach 
of  which  was  a  Codfish  two  feet  in  length.     The  Cod's 
stomach  contained  the  bodies  of  two  Whitings  of  ordi- 
nary size ;  and  the  Whitings,  in  their  turn,  held  the  half- 
digested  remains  of  many  smaller  fishes  too  much  broken 
up  to  be  identified." 

360.  The  mouth  of  each  fish  is  adapted  to  its  mode  of 
gaining  a  livelihood.    Some  species  have  no  teeth,  but  in 
most  fishes  there  are  several  rows  of  them.     They  are 
commonly  not  confined  to  the  jaws,  but  are  also  on  the 
tongue,  the  palate,  etc.    Most  have  teeth  merely  for  hold- 
ing the  food  and  passing  it  into  the  throat,  while  in  oth- 
ers there  are  teeth  for  cutting  or  tearing ;  and  in  such  as 
live  on  shell-fish  there  are  teeth  for  crushing. 


214  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

361.  Fishes  surpass  any  other  class  of  Vertebrates 
both  in  actual  number  and  in  the  number  of  genera  and 
species.  Seven  tenths  of  the  earth's  surface  is  covered 
with  water,  leaving  out  of  view  the  lakes  and  rivers. 
Now  in  the  seas  and  oceans  occupying  this  immense 
space  Fishes  are  found,  some  in  shallow  waters,  some  out 
at  sea  near  the  surface,  and  others  at  various  depths, 
some  even  to  the  depth  of  several  hundred  feet.  There 
are  different  ranges  of  depth  to  which  different  species 
are  fitted.  It  is  among  those  whose  range  does  not  ex- 
tend much  below  the  surface  that  we  have  a  display  of 
bright  and  various  colors,  equaling,  often,  that  of  the 
Bird  and  Insect  tribes ;  while  those  that  frequent  the 
depths  are  of  a  duh1  color.  This  difference  is  owing  most- 
ly to  the  influence  of  light.  At  what  depth  there  is  a 
total  absence  of  light,  and  therefore,  probably,  of  life,  has 
not  been  ascertained. 

Questions. — How  do  the  Fishes  differ  from  all  other  vertehrated  an- 
imals ?  What  is  said  of  the  necessity  for  breathing  to  a  fish  ?  How 
may  a  fish  be  drowned  ?  What  is  the  difference  between  lungs  and 
gills  ?  How  are  gills  constructed  and  arranged  ?  Why  does  a  fish  die 
when  out  of  water  ?  Why  can  some  live  a  considerable  time  in  air  ? 
What  is  the  plan  of  the  circulation  of  fishes  ?  Why  is  it  best  that  they 
should  be  cold-blooded  ?  What  is  said  of  the  shape  of  a  fish  ?  Why 
has  it  no  neck  ?  What  is  said  of  its  covering  ?  How  is  the  motion 
of  fishes  contrasted  with  that  of  birds  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Flying 
Fish  ?  How  do  fishes  use  their  air-bladder  ?  What  is  said  of  the  use 
of  the  tail  and  of  the  fins  in  swimming  ?  What  is  said  of  the  skele- 
tons of  fishes  ?  How  is  the  Fish  adapted  in  its  nervous  system  and  its 
senses  to  its  mode  of  life  ?  What  organs  of  touch  do  we  see  in  some 
fishes  ?  What  is  said  of  the  organs  of  vision  in  fishes  ?  What  of  their 
sense  of  smell  ?  What  is  said  of  their  food  ?  Give  the  statement  of 
Dr.  Houston.  What  is  said  of  the  mouths  of  fishes  ?  How  do  fishes 
compare  with  other  vertebrates  in  number  and  variety  ?N  What  is 
said  of  the  various  depths  in  which  they  live  ?  What  influence  has 
this  on  their  color  ? 


FISHES.  215 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

FISHES  —  continued. 

362.  SOME  fishes  are  fitted  to  live  in  fresh  water,  and 
some  in  salt,  while  others  can  live  in  both  equally  well. 
Some  remain  in  one  place,  but  others  are  wandering ;  and 
some  make  long  periodical  journeys  or  migrations.     At 
the  time  for  spawning  or  laying  their  eggs,  fishes  in  the 
sea  generally  either  approach  the  coasts  or  go  up  the 
rivers.     The  Herrings  are  an  example  of  the  former,  and 
the  Shad  and  Salmon  of  the  latter.     In  these  migrations 
the  Salmon  observe  regular  order,  as  the  wild  geese  do 
in  theirs.     They  form  two  long  files,  united  together  in 
front,  and  led  by  the  largest  female  in  the  troop.    The 
males  form  the  rear  guard.    When  any  obstacle  opposes, 
they  leap  over  it,  sometimes  to  the  height  of  ten  or  even 
sixteen  feet.     In  this  way  they  ascend  rivers  nearly  to 
their  sources,  and  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  autumn  in 
holes  which  they  dig  in  the   sand.     Remaining  here 
through  the'  winter,  in  the  early  spring  they  return  to 
the  sea.    It  seems  that  the  Salmon  have  the  same  instinct 
that  some  birds  have  in  regard  to  place,  §  212.     This 
was  proved  by  a  naturalist  named  Deslandes  in  this  way. 
He  placed  a  ring  of  copper  on  twelve  of  these  fish,  and 
set  them  at  liberty  in  the  River  Auzou,  in  Brittany. 
They,  of  course,  emigrated,  but  the  next  year  five  of  them 
were  caught  in  the  same  place,  the  second  year  three, 
and  the  year  after  three  more. 

363.  Most  fishes  are  abundantly  prolific.     You  can  see 
this  to  be  so  if  you  observe  the  roe  or  spawn  of  any  fish, 
this  being  the  collection  of  the  eggs  of  the  animal.     It  is 
estimated  that  at  least  60,000  eggs  are  contained  in  the 
roe  of  a  Herring.     The  roe  of  a  Codfish  was  ascertained 


216  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

to  contain  nine  million  of  eggs.  Fishes  being  thus  pro- 
lific, societies  of  them,  or  shoals,  as  they  are  called,  are 
often  immense  in  multitude.  They  would  be  too  abund- 
ant were  their  number  not  kept  down  by  various  causes. 
Many  of  the  eggs  are  destroyed,  and  then  of  the  young 
fish  so  many  are  eaten  by  other  fish,  and  are  killed  in  va- 
rious ways,  that  few  of  them  comparatively  come  to  ma- 
turity. 

364.  Some  fishes  present  a  strong  contrast  to  all  this 
in  the  number  of  their  young.  This  is  the  case  with  that 
rapacious  fish,  the  Shark,  thus  illustrating  the  Divine  wis- 
dom and  benevolence.  It  produces  but  two  eggs.  The 
eggs  of  some  species  of  the  Sharks  are  great  curiosities. 
They  are  of  firm  texture,  and  of  a  purse-like  shape,  with  a 
long  tendril  extending  from  each  corner  of  it,  as  seen  in 
Fig.  168.  These  tendrils,  coiling  around  seaweed  or  any 


Fig.  168.— Egg  of  Shark. 

other  substance,  serve  to  anchor  the  egg  securely.  The 
purse  is  thin  at  the  end  where  the  head  of  the  young  fish 
is,  and  when  it  is  in  a  fit  state  to  come  out,  it  breaks  its 
way  through  this  end.  Some  other  fishes  lay  similar 
eggs.  They  are  sometimes  picked  up  by  the  sea-shore, 
and  are  called  Mermaids'  Purses. 

365.  Fishes  supply  quite  a  large  portion  of  the  food  of 
the  human  family.  An  immense  amount  of  capital  is 
employed  in  carrying  on  the  fisheries,  and  in  some  quar- 
ters a  large  part  of  the  population  are  engaged  in  them. 


FISHES. 

It  was  estimated  at  one  time  that  one 
lation  of  Holland  were  devoted  to  this 
try  alone. 

366.  There  have  been  various  systems  of  classification 
proposed  for  the  Fishes.     Cuvier  first  divides  them  into 
those  that  have  really  bony  skeletons,  and  those  that 
have  cartilaginous  ones.    He  then  divides  the  Osseous  or 
bony  fishes  into  two  groups  according  to  their  fins,  the 
first  being  spine-rayed,  the  second'  soft-rayed.     The  Car- 
tilaginous  fishes  he  divides  into  two  groups  according  to 
the  arrangement  of  their  gills,  the  fringes  being  free  in 
the  one,  and  being  fixed  in  the  other.     Professor  Agassiz 
classifies  fishes  according  to  the  character  of  their  scales, 
making  four  orders. 

367.  It  would  take  us  into  too  broad  a  field  to  go  into 
the  minute  classification  of  fishes.     I  shall,  therefore,  in 
addition  to  what  has  already  been  presented,  notice  par- 
ticularly only  a  few  of  the  most  interesting  of  these 
animals. 

368.  The  Swordfish,  Fig.  169,  is  found  in  every  part 


Fig.  169.— The  Swordfish. 

of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Its  "  sword"  is  an  elongation 
of  the  upper  jaw,  of  great  strength.  It  uses  it  in  trans- 
fixing its  prey,  running  into  shoals  of  fishes  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  the  British  Museum  there  is  a  piece  of  the 
bottom  of  a  ship  with  a  "  sword"  thrust  entirely  through 
it.  The  length  of  this  fish  is  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet. 
Another  fish  of  about  the  same  size  has  a  similar  projec- 

K 


218 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


tion  from  the  upper  jaw,  but  notched  on  both  sides,  and 
hence  it  is  called  the  Sawfish.'  With  this  instrument  it 
sometimes  attacks  the  Whale,  inflicting  severe  wounds 
on  him,  and  sometimes  imbedding  the  saw  in  his  body 
in  its  full  length. 

369.  The  John  Dory,  Fig.  170,  is  a  singular  fish  in  its 


Fig.  170 — The  John  Dory. 

shape,  its  markings,  and  its  appendages.  In  England 
its  fame  is  associated  with  the  performances  of  Quin  the 
comedian.  There  are  various  traditions  of  a  curious  na- 
ture in  regard  to  the  round  spots  on  its  sides.  One  is, 
that  this  is  the  fish  that  St.  Peter  caught,  and  that  in 
taking  the  tribute-money  out  of  its  mouth  he  made  these 
marks  with  his  finorer  and  thumb.  The  name  of  this 

fish  is  probably  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  French 
jaune  dore — golden 
yellow,  the  color  of 
the  lighter  parts  of 
the  fish  when  it  is 
alive. 
370.  The  Seahorse, 

Fig.  Ill—The  Seahorse.  Fig.    Ifl,     has    been 


FISHES.  219 


often  found  off  the  coasts  of  England.     It  is  the  only  fish 
that  is  as  yet  known  to  have  a  prehensile  tail.     It  has 
been  found  in  the  Hudson  River  of  this  country,  about 
five  or  six  inches  in  length. 
371.  The  Lophius,  or  Fishing  Frog,  Fig.  172,  appears 


Fig.  172.—  The  Lophius,  or  Fishing  Frog. 

on  all  the  European  coasts,  and  also  on  our  own.  With 
its  pectoral  fins  it  can  crawl  on  land.  The  voracity  of 
this  fish  is  very  great,  and  if  caught  in  a  net  with  other 
fish  it  will  devour  some  of  its  fellow-prisoners.  Its  usual 
mode  of  capturing  its  prey  is  this.  Crouching  close  to 
the  bottom,  and  stirring  up  the  mud  and  sand,  it  moves 
about  the  long  filaments;  the  small  fishes,  swimming 
about,  suppose  these  filaments  to  be  worms,  and  as  they 
are  about  to  seize  them,  the  Angler,  with  a  quick  move- 
ment, takes  them  into  his  capacious  jaws. 

372.  The  Sturgeon,  Fig.  173  (p.  220),  although  one 
of  the  cartilaginous  fishes,  has  externally  rows  of  bony 
plates.  It  is  very  common  in  the  northern  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, where  there  are  regular  fisheries  for  its  capture. 
Almost  every  part  of  it  is  used — isinglass  being  obtained 
from  its  air-bladder,  and  caviar  from  the  roe,  while  the 
flesh  is  consumed  both  in  a  fresh  and  a  salted  state.  It 
is  much  esteemed  as  food,  eaten  fresh,  in  the  Atlantic 


220 


Fig.  173.  —The  Sturgeon. 

Southern  States  of  this  country.  The  female  deposits 
her  eggs  in  the  fresh  water  of  rivers,  and  the  young, 
when  hatched,  migrate  to  the  sea. 

373.  The  family  of  Flat  Fish  differ  in  some  important 
respects  not  only  from  all  other  fishes,  but  from  all  other 
vertebrated  animals.  The  Tnrbot,  Fig.  174,  is  an  ex- 


Fig.  174— The  Turbot. 

ample  of  it.  These  fishes  are  not  ordinarily  in  the  posi- 
tion that  you  see  here,  but  lie  flat  along  near  the  bottom, 
the  upper  surface  in  most  species  being  of  a  dark  color, 
while  the  lower  surface  is  white.  They  have  no  air- 
bladder,  and  have  little  power  of  rising  in  the  water. 
When  they  are  disturbed  they  assume  a  vertical  position, 
showing  their  white  sides,  and  dart  along  with  great 


FISHES.  221 

rapidity.  Some  are  occasionally  met  with  in  which  the 
sides  are  alike  in  color,  most  often  dark,  but  sometimes 
white,  and  these  are  said  to  be  "  doubles."  The  fishes 
of  this  family  differ  from  all  other  Vertebrates  in  a  lack 
of  perfect  symmetry  in  relation  to  the  two  halves  of  the 
body.  In  all  other  Vertebrates  the  two  halves  are  alike, 
except  in  some  of  the  internal  organs.  But  in  these 
fishes  there  is  a  difference  between  the  two  sides  in  sev- 
eral particulars.  The  two  eyes  are  on  one  side,  and  are 
irregularly  placed ;  in  some  species  they  are  on  the  right 
side,  and  in  others  on  the  left.  With  this  there  is  an 
irregularity  in  the  bones  of  the  head,  while  in  all  other 
Vertebrates  they  are  alike  on  the  two  sides.  Then  there 
is  the  difference  in  color.  There  is  also  a  difference  in 
the  pectoral  fins,  one  being  longer  than  the  other. 

374.  Most  of  the  species  of  this  family  belong  exclu- 
sively to  the  sea,  and  yet  the  Flounder  and  some  others 
occasionally  ascend  rivers.     The  Halibut,  so  well-known 
in  this  country,  is  a  very  large  fish,  sometimes  six  or 
seven  feet  long,  and  weighing  four  or  five  hundred 
pounds.     The  flesh  of  the  Turbot  is  considered  peculiar- 
ly fine,  and  immense  quantities  are  taken  in  the  fisher- 
ies.   Carpenter  states  that  the  Dutch  receive  £80,000  per 
annum  for  the  supply  of  this  fish  to  the  London  market. 

375.  The  Herring  family  furnish  a  great  amount  of 
food  to  man.     They  are  mostly  marine  fishes ;  only  a  few 
species,  among  which  is  the  Shad,  ascending  the  rivers 
at  the  spawning  season.    The  common  Shad  of  this  coun- 
try has  a  much  better  flavor  than  the  Shad  of  Europe. 
The  Sardine  and  Anchovy  are  aberrant  species  of  this 
family.    The  true  Herring  inhabits  the  northern  seas, 
and  arrives  every  year  in  vast  legions  on  the  coasts  of 
America,  Europe,  and  Asia,  never  descending  below  the 
45th  degree  of  north  latitude.     They  come  to  the  coast 
to  spawn,  and  then  retire  to  the  depths  of  the  sea,  going 
northward. 

376.  The  Eels  are  called  Apoda,  or  Footless  Fish,  be- 


222  NATUEAL   HISTORY. 

cause  they  have  no  ventral  or  belly  fins.  They  have 
long,  snake -like  bodies,  covered  with  a  soft  skin,  the 
scales  being  very  minute,  often  almost  invisible.  They 
can  live  for  some  time  out  of  the  water,  chiefly  from  a 
peculiar  arrangement  of  the  gills.  The  gills  have  very 
narrow  openings,  and  are,  therefore,  so  much  sheltered 
from  the  air  that  they  do  not  readily  become  unfit  for  res- 
piration in  becoming  dry  (§350).  There  is  a  similar  ar- 
rangement in  the  Lampreys,  a  class  of  Fishes  of  eel-like 
shape,  in  some  respects  the  lowest  in  organization  of  all 
the  Vertebrate  animals.  In  these  fishes  there  are  four- 
teen gill-openings,  seven  on  each  side,  as  seen  in  Fig.  175. 


Fig.  175. — Lamprey. 

They  are  sometimes  called  Seven-eyes  on  this  account. 
The  mouth  is  a  singular  apparatus.  It  is  ring-shaped, 
and  is  armed  with  numerous  teeth,  and  there  are  also 
two  longitudinal  rows  of  small  teeth  on  the  tongue.  The 
tongue  moves  backward  and  forward  in  the  mouth,  act- 
ing as  a  piston,  thus,  by  its  suction  power,  enabling  the 
fish  to  hold  on  to  any  object  that  it  pleases. 

377.  In  the  rivers  and  ponds  of  Surinam  and  other 
parts  of  South  America  there  is  found  an  Eel  which  is 
armed  with  a  true  electric  battery.  It  uses  it  in  destroy- 
ing the  life  of  its  prey,  which  it  does  instantaneously.  It 
can  sometimes  give  a  shock  powerful  enough  to  prostrate 
a  man.  Humboldt  describes  the  method  adopted  by  the 
natives  in  taking  these  animals.  Having  found  a  pool  in 
which  they  are,  they  drive  in  a  troop  of  wild  horses.  Aft- 


FISHES.  223 


er  the  electricity  accumulated  in  their  batteries  is  pretty 
much  expended  on  the  horses — some  of  them,  perhaps, 
being  killed  by  it — the  Eels  are  captured  with  impunity. 
378.  There  is  an  aberrant  genus  of  the  Ray  family 
which  has  a  similar  apparatus,  the  situation  of  which  is 
seen  in  Fig.  176,  in  the  two  elevations  extending  from  the 


Fig.  176.— Torpedo. 

eyes  about  half  way  down  the  body.  This  fish  is  found 
chiefly  in  the  Mediterranean,  where  its  powers  are  well 
known  and  are  much  feared.  The  apparatus  is  represent- 
ed in  Fig.  177  (p.  224),  the  batteries  on  each  side  being 
at  e.  On  one  side  is  seen  the  nerve,  which,  branching  out 
from  the  brain,  c,  to  the  battery,  is  the  means  by  which 
the  animal  can  work  it  at  pleasure.  The  batteries  are 
composed  of  multitudes  of  tubes  pressed  one  against  an- 
other like  the  cells  of  a  honeycomb,  and  filled  with  a 
thick  fluid.  The  true  Rays  have  on  the  tail  and  other 
parts  barbs  or  prickles  with  which  they  can  inflict  wounds. 
They  are  shaped  much  like  the  Flatfish  (§  373).  But  in 
their  case  the  upper  side  is  really  the  back  and  the  under 
side  is  the  belly ;  and  they  are  symmetrical,  having  the 
eyes  on  the  upper  side,  and  the  mouth,  nostrils,  and  gill- 


224 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


e,      c 


openings  beneath. 
Like  the  Flatfish,  they 
move  along  in  search 
of  their  prey  near  the 
bottom.  Some  species 
reach  a  large  size,  the 
\  Eagle  Rays  having 
been  seen  twenty-five 
feet  long  and  thirty 
broad.  It  is  stated 
that  one  was  taken  at 
Barbadoes  which 
weighed  3500  pounds, 
and  that  it  required 
seven  yoke  of  oxen  to 
draw  it  ashore. 


Questions. — What  is  said 
of  the  distinction  between 
salt-water  and  fresh-water 
Fishes  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  migration  of  Fishes? 
What  of  the  migration  of 
the  Salmon  ?  Give  the  ob- 
servation of  Deslandes. 
What  is  said  of  their  fe- 
cundity ?  What  is  said  of  the  Sharks  in  this  respect  ?  Describe  the 
eggs  of  some  Sharks.  What  is  said  of  Fishes  as  supplying  man  with 
food  ?  What  is  said  of  the  classification  of  Fishes  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  Swordfish  ?  Of  the  John  Dory  ?  Of  the  Seahorse  ?  Of  the 
Lophius  ?  Of  the  Sturgeon  ?  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the 
Flatfishes?  How  do  they  differ  from  all  other  Vertebrates?  In 
what  water  are  most  species  found?  What  is  said  of  the  Halibut? 
What  are  some  of  the  fishes  of  the  Herring  family  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  true  Herrings  ?  Why  are  Eels  called  Apoda  ?  What  is  said 
of  their  scales  ?  What  of  their  gills  ?  What  of  the  gills  of  the  Lam- 
preys ?  What  of  their  mouth  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Electrical  Eel  ? 
Describe  the  arrangement  of  the  electrical  apparatus  of  the  Torpedo. 
What  is  said  of  the  true  Rays  ?  Give  the  comparison  with  the  Flat- 
fish. What  is  said  of  the  size  of  the  Rays  ? 


Fig.  177. — Electric  Apparatus  of  Torpedo. 


INSECTS.  225 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

INSECTS. 

379.  THE  sub-kingdom  which  we  have  already  consid- 
ered is  the  Vertebrate.     The  other  three  sub-kingdoms 
are  said  to  be  Invertebrate,  the  prefix  in  being  here  used 
as  meaning  the  same  as  the  very  common  negative  prefix 
un.     Of  these  sub-kingdoms  I  will  notice  the  Articulata 
first.     The  two  chief  characteristics  of  it  were  stated  in 
Chapter  I.     These,  however,  and  other  characteristics, 
require  a  more  particular  notice  here,  before  I  enter  on 
the  consideration  of  Insects,  the  special  subject  of  this 
chapter. 

380.  The  kingdom  of  the  Articulates  includes  a  wide 
range  of  animals  of  great  variety — Insects,  Worms,  the 
Spider  and  Scorpion  tribe,  and  the  Crab  tribe.    But  they 
all  agree  in  one  thing — in  having  a  covering  which  an- 
swers the  purpose  of  the  internal  skeleton  of  the  Verte- 
brates.    This  covering,  or  jointed  armor,  gives  firmness 
to  the  body,  and  furnishes  points  of  attachment  to  the 
muscles. 

381.  This  skeleton  coat  of  mail  is  very  commonly  ar- 
ranged on  the  bodies  of  these  animals  in  segments  in  the 
form  of  rings.     This  arrangement  is  seen  most  perfectly 
carried  out  in  the  Centipede,  Fig.  178  (p.  226).    You  can 
also  see  it  plainly  in  the  bodies  of  most  insects,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  common  Fly.     This  arrangement  mostly 
disappears  in  the  Crab  tribe,  where,  for  the  sake  of  firm- 
ness, the  skeleton  covering  the  body  of  the  animal  is  in 
one  piece.     So,  also,  on  the  other  hand,  it  nearly  disap- 
pears in  such  soft  Articulates  as  the  Leech  and  Earth- 
worm, because  there  the  rings  would  not  allow  the  requi- 
site limberness. 

K2 


226 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


382.  I  have  spoken  in  §  15  of  the  ganglia 
of  the  nervous   system  of  the  Articulates. 
Commonly  there  is  a  chain  of  them,  as  seen  hi 
Fig.  8.     But  sometimes,  as  hi  some  of  the 
Crab  tribe,  there  are  only  two,  one  in  the  head 
and  the  other  in  the  thorax.     This  is  a  de- 
cided approach  toward  the  arrangement  of 
the  nervous  system  of  the  Vertebrates,  the 
upper  ganglion  being  somewhat  like  a  true 
brain. 

383.  The  muscles  constitute  the  bulk  of 
the  body  in  the  Articulates ;  and,  being  thus 
muscular,  they  are  very  active.    For  this  pur- 
pose the  armor-skeleton  is  made  as  light  as 
possible  consistently  with  the  requisite  firm- 
ness.    The  movements  of  some  of  them  ex- 
ceed in  rapidity  those  of  any  other  animals. 
With  the  exception  of  one  group,  they  roam 
freely  in  search  of  their  food,  and  have  very 
effective    organs  for   capturing  their  prey. 

Flg'  ipede!°en   Their  apparatus  for  mastication,  also,  is  com- 
monly complicated  and  powerful. 

384.  Almost  all  of  the  Articulata  have  a  distinct  head. 
The  jaws  do  not  move  up  and  down  as  in  the  Verte- 
brates, but  sidewise.     There  are  often  several  pairs  of 
them,  sometimes  having  cutting  edges,  sometimes  edges 
with  saw-like  teeth,  and  sometimes  they  are  fitted  to 
crush  rather  than  to  cut  or  tear.     The  legs  are  gener- 
ally six,  eight,  ten,  or  fourteen  in  number,  but  some- 
times there  are  many  hundreds.     Sometimes  there  are 
none ;  but  when  they  exist  at  all,  they  are  never  less  than 
six. 

385.  The  circulation   of  the  Articulates  is  peculiar. 
There  is  no  heart,  but  instead  there  is  a  tube  stretching 
along  the  back.     This  is  not  perfectly  regular,  but  has 
segments  corresponding  with  the  segments  of  the  body 
mentioned  in  §  381.     Each  segment  is  a  sort  of  heart  for 


INSECTS.  227 

its  division  of  the  body.    The  blood  is  for  the  most  part 
white. 

386.  The  respiration  differs  in  the  different  classes.    In 
the  Crustacea,  the  class  to  which  the  Lobsters  and  Crabs 
belong,  the  respiratory  organs  are,  like  those  of  the  Fish- 
es, fitted  for  the  action  of  air  mingled  with  water.    They 
are  really  gills  in  various  forms.     But  in  the  Insects  and 
Spiders  the  respiration  is  aerial ;  that  is,  the  respiratory 
organs  are  fitted  for  the  action  of  air  alone  by  itself. 

387.  The  symmetry  of  the  body  is  even  more  complete 
in  the  Articulates  than  it  is  in  the  Vertebrates.     In  the 
latter  there  are  many  of  the  internal  organs  in  regard  to 
which  the  two  halves  of  the  body  are  not  alike,  as  the 
heart,  stomach,  lungs,  etc.     But  in  the  Articulates  thi^ 
symmetry  is  extended  even  to  some  of  these  internal 
organs. 

388.  The  Articulata  are  commonly  divided  into  seven 
classes.     1.  Insects.    These  have  the  three  divisions  of 
the  body,  the  head,  the  thorax  or  chest,  and  the  abdo- 
men.   They  have  antennae  or  feelers  on  the  head,  three 
pairs  of  legs,  and  generally  one  or  two  pairs  of  wings. 
2.  Myriapoda,  the  Centipedes.     They  have  no  separation 
of  the  body  into  thorax  and  abdomen.     The  head,  how- 
ever, is  very  distinct.     There  are  seldom  less  than  twen- 
ty-four pairs  of  legs.     The  segments  of  the  body  are  nu- 
merous and  equal.     3.  Arachnida,  including  the  Spiders, 
Scorpions,  and  Mites,  are  characterized  by  the  union  of 
the  head  and  thorax,  by  the  very  distinct  separation  of 
this  cephalo-thorax  from  the  abdomen,  by  the  possession 
of  four  pairs  of  legs,  and  by  their  want  of  aritennaB.     In 
all  these  three  classes  the  respiration  is  aerial.     4.  Crus- 
tacea, or  Crabs,  Lobsters,  etc.    The  respiration  is  aquatic, 
like  that  of  Fishes.     They  have  from  five  to  seven  pairs 
of  legs.     The  body  is  variously  divided.     In  some  the 
three  parts  are  distinct,  as  in  Insects ;  in  others  the  ar- 
rangement is  like  that  of  the  Arachnida ;  and  in  others 
still  it  is  like  that  of  the  Myriapoda.     The  classes  already 


228  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

mentioned  have  articulated  members.  The  remaining 
three  have  none.  5.  The  Annelida,  the  Leech  and  Worm 
tribe,  having  the  segments  very  indistinct.  6.  Entozoa, 
Intestinal  Worms,  in  which  the  articulated  arrangement 
is  still  more  indistinct  than  in  the  Annelida.  7.  Rotifera, 
or  Wheel  Animalcules,  very  minute  animals,  presenting 
the  articulated  character  quite  indistinctly. 

389.  I  now  pass  to  the  consideration  of  Insects.     This 
class  of  the  Articulata  has  an  immense  number  of  dis- 
tinct species,  surpassing  in  this  respect  every  other  de- 
partment of  the  animal  kingdom.     Dr.  Carpenter  esti- 
mates  the   sub-kingdom  of  Vertebrates  as  containing 
30,000  species,  a  number  which  is  exceeded  by  one  sin- 
gle order  of  the  Insect  tribe,  the  Beetles.     And  numer- 
ous as  are  the  known  species  of  Insects,  it  is  supposed 
that  the  number  of  those  which  remain  to  be  discovered 
is  far  greater. 

390.  The  name  Insect  comes  from  the  Latin  word  in- 
seco,  to  cut  into,  and  refers  to  the  divisions  or  sections 
of  the  animal's  body.     The  intervals  between  them  are 
so  abrupt  that  they  appear  as  if  made  by  a  cutting  opera- 
tion.    The  sections  or  segments  are  usually  thirteen  or 
fourteen  in  number.     One  is  the  head;  the  chest   or 
thorax  has  three ;  and  the  abdomen  nine. 

391.  The  respiration  of  Insects  is  peculiar.     They  have 
no  lungs  in  one  particular  part  of  the  body.     Their  lungs 
may  be  said  to  be  in  all  quarters  of  the  body,  for  air  is 
admitted  by  various  openings  into  tubes  which  traverse 
here  and  there.     It  is  thus  that  the  blood  of  the  insect  is 
acted  upon  by  the  air.     These  openings  are  generally 
mere  slits  like  button-holes;  but  often  they  have  two 
valves  which  open  and  shut  like  folding  doors,  and  some- 
times they  have  over  them  a  sort  of  fine  grating  to  keep 
dust  from  entering.     As  Insects  are  exceedingly  active, 
they  require  comparatively  a  large  amount  of  air.     They 
are  strikingly  in  contrast  with  Reptiles  in  this  respect. 
These  latter  are  so  dull  and  slow  that  they  need  but  lit- 


INSECTS.  229 

tie  air ;  and  when  they  go  to  sleep  for  the  winter  they 
require  none,  and  their  breathing  stops. 

392.  Some  insects  live  on  the  juices  of  plants  and  of 
animals,  and  some  devour  the  substance  of  either  the 
one  or  the  other.    The  former  suck  their  food ;  the  lat- 
ter gnaw  it.    These  two  classes,  therefore,  have  two  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  mouths.    The  gnawers,  such  as  Beetles, 
Cockroaches,  Locusts,  etc.,  have  a  complicated  apparatus, 
which  I  will  describe.    First,  there  are  two  tooth  or 
claw-like  appendages,  called  mandibles;  these  are  the 
upper  jaws,  which  divide  the  food.    They  come  together 
by  a  lateral  or  sidewise  motion.     Sometimes  they  have 
sharp  edges  to  cut  like  scissors,  and  sometimes  they  have 
points  for  tearing.     Below  or  behind  these  are  two  other 
jaws,  called  maxiZZce,  which  are  very  complex  in  their 
structure.     Above,  or,  rather,  in  front  of  the  mandibles, 
is  a  lip,  and  so  there  is  one  behind  the  maxillae.     Insects 
furnished  with  an  apparatus  of  this  kind  are  called  man- 
dibulate. 

393.  In  some  insects  we  have  an  arrangement  entirely 
of  a  different  character,  as  in  the  Butterfly  tribe.     Here 
there  is  a  tubular  appendage,  or  trunk,  often  quite  long. 

This  is  ordinarily  coiled  up,  as  you  see 
in  Fig.  179.  When  the  animal  wishes, 
it  can  uncoil  it  and  extend  it  down 
into  the  bosom  of  flowers.  Such  in- 
sects are  called  Haustellate,  from 
liaustellum,  a  sucker.  This  tube,  or 
Pig.  1T9.  proboscis,  varies  much  in  different  in- 

sects. In  some,  as  the  Bees,  there  is  a  mixture  of  the 
mandibulate  and  the  haustellate  arrangements.  They 
obtain  their  food  by  suction,  and  use  their  mandibles 
and  maxilla3  as  trowels  and  spades,  and  knives  and  scis- 
sors, in  building  their  curious  habitations.  In  insects 
that  suck  the  blood  of  animals,  such  as  the  Musquito 
and  the  Horsefly,  there  is  a  peculiar  modification  of  the 
apparatus.  There  is  a  proboscis  with  lancets  to  make 


230 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


the  necessary  wound  in  the  skin  of  the  animal  whose 
blood  is  to  be  sucked. 

394.  The  head  of  the  insect  is  furnished  with  certain 
appendages  called  antennae,  supposed  to  be  organs  of 
feeling,  and  perhaps  of  hearing  also.  They  are  various 
in  form,  and  commonly  very  beautiful,  especially  when 
examined  with  the  microscope.  In  Fig.  180  you  have 


Fig.  180.— Variously-formed  Antennae  of  Insects. 


a  variety  of  them  represented.  There  are  other  feelers 
called  palpi,  which  are  usually  much  smaller  and  shorter. 
The  antennae  probably  act  as  feelers  in  regard  to  objects 
a  little  distance  off,  while  the  palpi  do  the  same  for  sub- 
stances close  by  the  mouth  of  the  animal. 

395.  The  senses  of  Insects  are  all  acute ;  and  yet  the 
organ  of  smell  has  never  been  discovered,  and  in  most 
no  organ  of  hearing  can  be  found.  The  organs  of  vision 
are  generally  plain  to  be  seen,  and  are  often  exceedingly 
prominent  objects  as  we  look  at  the  insect.  Very  com- 
monly the  eye  is  a  multitude  of  small  eyes.  In  the  com- 
mon house  Fly  there  are  4000  of  them,  and  some  insects 


Fig.  181.— Head  and  Eyes  of  the  Bee,  showing  the  Division  into  Facets. 


INSECTS. 


231 


have  25,000.  If  examined  with  a  microscope,  the  sur- 
face of  these  compound  eyes  appears  as  you  see  in  Fig. 
181  (p.  230),  representing  the  head  and  eyes  of  a  bee. 
At  a  are  the  antenna,  and  the  eyes  occupy  most  of  the 
front  and  sides  of  the  head.  The  surface  is  made  up  of 
hexagonal  (six-sided)  facets.  At  A  you  see  them  much 
magnified,  and  at  B  you  see  hairs  standing  out  between 
them.  Each  of  these  facets  is  a  cornea,  or  window  to  a 
little  eye.  (See  "First  Book  in  Physiology,"  p.  167.) 
Most  insects  have  these  compound  eyes,  but  some  have 
only  single  ones,  and  some  have  both,  for  what  reason 
we  do  not  know. 

396.  The  digestive  apparatus  is  commonly  quite  com- 
plicated, there  being  three 
stomachs — one  correspond- 
ing to  the  crop  of  birds,  an- 
other to  the  gizzard,  while  a 
third  receives  the  food  and 
digests  it  after  it  has  been 
softened  and  ground  in  the 
other  two  stomachs.  The 
second  stomach,  or  gizzard, 
is  often  armed  with  horny 
projections,  in  order  to  grind 
up  the  food  effectually.  In 
Fig.  182  you  have  the  whole 
digestive  apparatus  of  a 
Beetle.  First  you  see  the 
strong  cutting  mandibles, 
the  maxillaB  and  the  anten- 
na3 ;  then  a  the  throat,  b  the 
gullet,  c  the  crop,  d  the  giz- 
zard, e  the  third  stomach, 
/"the  intestine.  The  liver,  A, 
instead  of  being  such  a  solid 
organ  as  it  is  in  vertebrate 

A'ig.  182.— Digestive  Apparatus  of 

Beetle.  and  most  other  animals,  is 


232  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

made  up  of  loDg  and  delicate  tubes.  As  lightness  is  a 
great  object  in  the  structure  of  the  Insect,  the  digestive 
apparatus  is  made  of  as  little  bulk  as  possible. 

397.  The  feet  of  Insects  are  in  conformity  with  their 
modes  of  life.     Some  have  claws  or  hooks ;  some  have 
a  kind  of  suction  cushion  by  which  they  can  adhere  to 
surfaces;    some  have  fringed  feet  to  enable  them  to 
swim ;  and  some  have  their  fore  feet  shaped  for  digging, 
like  the  Mole's. 

398.  The  wings  are  generally  made  very  much  like 
those  of  the  Bat,  §  58.     They  consist  of  a  double  mem- 
brane over  an  extended  slender  frame-work.     There  are 
generally  two  pairs,  but  sometimes  only  one,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  common  Fly.     Often  the  first  pair  of  wings 
are  mere  coverings  for  the  other  wings,  and  have  no  act- 
ive agency  in  flight.     In  this  case  they  are  made  thick 

and  firm,  and  are  called  the 
elytra  (singular  elytrum).  In 
Fig.  183  you  see  the  elytra 
at  a.  When  the  Insect  is  at 
rest,  the  elytra  are  brought 
together  over  the  back,  the 
true  wings  being  folded,  some- 
times very  curiously,  under 
them.  The  true  wings  are 
light  and  thin,  and  they  are 
transparent,  except  when  they 
are  covered  with  what  ap- 
pears to  the  naked  eye  as  a 

kind  of  colored  dust,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Moths  and 
Butterflies.  This  dust,  examined  with  the  microscope,  is 
found  to  be  made  up  of  little  regularly-formed  scales, 
often  beautifully  marked  with  lines.  When  they  are 
rubbed  oif,  their  fastenings  look,  under  the  microscope, 
like  the  nail-heads  on  a  roof  when  old  shingles  have  been 
torn  off.  In  some  of  the  Butterflies  the  scales  are  ar- 
ranged like  shingles  on  a  roof,  and  with  their  various 
colors  present  a  very  beautiful  appearance. 


INSECTS.  233 

399.  There  is  no  part  of  the  animal  world  that  exhib- 
its so  great  a  variety  of  beauty  in  both  color  and  struc- 
ture as  the  Insect  tribe.     And  it  is  especially  true  of 
these  animals,  that,  great  as  is  the  beauty  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  still  greater  is  that  which  the  microscope  re- 
veals. 

400.  With  very  few  exceptions  Insects  are  oviparous. 
In  many  cases  the  eggs  are  laid  in  autumn,  and  are  hatch- 
ed in  the  spring.    Insects  that  do  this,  instinctively  make 
special  provision  for  the  preservation  of  the  eggs  through 
the  winter.    When  the  eggs  are  of  a  tender  consistence, 
the  Insects  deposit  them  deeply  in  the  earth.     But  some 
are  deposited  on  trees.    In  this  case  leaves  are  not  se- 
lected as  the  place  of  deposit,  as  is  very  commonly  done 
when  the  eggs  are  to  be  soon  hatched ;  for  if  this  were 
done,  the  leaves  being  scattered  by  the  wind,  the  Insects, 
when  they  came  to  be  hatched,  might  be  far  away  from 
their  appropriate  food.     Accordingly,  the  parent  de- 
posits the  eggs  on  the  trunks  or  branches  of  the  trees, 
upon  whose  young  leaves  their  progeny  can  live  when 
the  warmth  of  spring  hatches  them.    Moreover,  eggs 
thus  exposed  to  the  cold  of  winter  have  not  the  usual 
delicate  covering  of  those  which  are  hatched  the  same 
season  in  which  they  are  laid,  or  of  those  which  are  de- 
posited in  the  earth  for  the  winter.     They  are  covered 
with  a  hard,  thick  shell ;  and,  besides,  they  are  well  pack- 
ed together,  and  the  interstices  are  filled  up  with  a  tena- 
cious substance  which  becomes  very  hard.     The  arrange- 
ment of  these  little  eggs  is  often  very  beautiful.    They 
are  of  very  great  variety  of  shape,  and  some  of  them  are 
curiously  and  elaborately  constructed.     In  Fig.  184  (p. 
234)  you  have  a  few  of  these  varieties  represented. 

401.  Insects  are  commonly  exceedingly  prolific.     The 
queen  of  the  Honey  Bees  lays  fifty  thousand  eggs,  and 
the  female  White  Ant  produces  forty  or  fifty  millions  in 
a  year.     It  is  calculated  that  the  progeny  of  a  single 
Aphis  or  Plant  Louse  number  in  one  season  a  trillion, 


234 


NATURAL    HISTOKY. 


Fig.  184.— Magnified  Eggs  of  various  Insects. 

that  is,  1,000,000,000,000,000,000.  But  they  are  so  feebly 
constructed  that  a  large  portion  of  them  are  destroyed 
in  one  way  and  another  before  they  come  to  maturity. 
Insects  are  distributed  largely  over  all  parts  of  the  globe, 
appearing  even  in  the  arctic  regions  during  their  short 
summers.  They  are  the  most  abundant  in  the  tropical 
regions,  and  there  the  largest  and  most  brilliant  species 
are  found.  Each  region  has  Insects  peculiar  to  itself. 
Some,  however,  are  very  widely  distributed,  the  com- 
mon House  Fly  the  most  widely  of  all. 


Questions. — What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  Invertebrate  ?  What 
are  included  in  the  sub-kingdom  of  the  Articulata  ?  In  what  are  they 
alike  ?  What  is  said  of  the  arrangement  of  the  skeleton-covering  of 
the  Articulata?  What  is  said  of  their  nervous  system?  What  of 
their  muscles?  What  of  their  jaws?  What  of  their  circulation? 
What  of  their  respiratory  organs  ?  How  do  they  differ  from  the  Ver- 
tebrates in  symmetry  ?  Give  the  classes  of  the  Articulata,  with  their 
characteristics.  What  is  said  of  the  number  of  Insects  ?  Show  the 
appropriateness  of  the  name  Insect.  Describe  the  respiratory  appa- 
ratus of  Insects.  What  do  Insects  live  on  ?  Describe  the  mandibu- 
late  apparatus.  Describe  the  haustellate  apparatus.  What  are  some 
of  its  variations  ?  What  is  said  of  the  antenna?  ?  What  of  the  palpi  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  senses  of  Insects  ?  Describe  the  arrangement  of 
the  eyes  of  a  Bee.  What  is  said  of  the  digestive  organs  of  Insects  ? 


THE   METAMOEPHOSIS    OP   INSECTS.  235 

Describe  the  digestive  apparatus  of  a  Beetle.  How  are  the  wings  of 
Insects  constructed  ?  What  are  elytra  ?  What  is  there  peculiar  in 
the  wings  of  Moths  and  Butterflies  ?  What  is  said  of  the  beauties  of 
Insects  ?  What  various  provisions  are  made  for  preserving  and  hatch- 
ing the  eggs  of  Insects  ?  What  is  said  of  their  shapes  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  fecundity  of  Insects  ?  What  of  their  distribution  ? 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE   METAMORPHOSIS    OF   INSECTS. 

402.  THE  grand  peculiarity  of  Insects  is  their  metamor- 
phosis, or  change  of  form.     Almost  every  Insect  under- 
goes this  change,  there  being  commonly  three  distinct 
changes  of  being.    In  the  first  stage  the  Insect  is  a  crawl- 
ing caterpillar  or  a  worm.     In  its  second  stage  it  is  wrap- 
ped up  in  a  covering  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  is  in 
a  state  of  sleep.    During  this  sleep  great  changes  are 
going  on.     When  these  are  completed  it  is  a  winged  an- 
imal, its  wings  being  closely  folded  up.     In  due  time  it 
comes  out  of  its  prison,  and  spreads  its  wings  for  flight. 
It  is  now  deemed  to  have  arrived  at  its  perfect  condi- 
tion. 

403.  In  its  first  stage  it  is  called  a  Larva,  this  being 
the  Latin  word  for  mask,  the  idea  being  that  the  Insect 
is  now  not  in  its  true  state  or  character,  but  is  in  a  mask- 
ed condition,  from  which  it  will  after  a  while  come  out. 
When  it  does  so,  it  is  called  the  Imago,  or  said  to  be  in 
the  imago  state.     The  Insect  is  now  the  image  or  repre- 
sentative in  full  of  its  species.     Its  sleeping  state,  the 
one  intermediate  between  the  larva  state  and  the  imago 
state,  is  a  transition  one.     In  this  the  Insect  is  changing 
from  a  crawling  to  a  flying  animal.     It  is  now  termed 
a  Pupa,  the  Latin  for  baby,  because  it  commonly  appears 
somewhat  like  an  infant  trussed  up  with  bandages,  as  has 
sometimes  been  the  fashion  in  some  nations.     The  or- 


236  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

dinary  forms  and  appearance  of  Pupae  (plural  of  Pupa) 
are  represented  in  Fig.  185. 


Fig.  185.— a,  Pupa  of  a  Water-beetle  (tiydrophilus) ;  6,  Pupa  of  Sphinx  LigustrL 

404.  The  different  larvae  of  Insects  have  the  different 
names  of  maggot,  grub,  and  caterpillar,  according  to 
their  form  and  appearance.    The  pupae  of  Butterflies  and 
Moths  were  formerly  called  Chrysalids  and  Aurelias,  be- 
cause the  coverings  of  some  of  them  have  spots  of  a 
golden  hue.    The  term  Chrysalis  is  often  used  at  the 
present  day  as  synonymous  with  pupa,  and  this  state  of 
the  Insect  is  called  the  Chrysalid  state. 

405.  The  changes  which  take  place  in  the  pupa  state 
are  very  great,  even  radical  ones.     There  is  commonly 
no  resemblance  between  the  Larva  and  its  Imago.    There 
may  be  great  beauty  in  the  Imago,  and  none  in  the  Lar- 
va, and  sometimes  the  reverse  is  the  case.     Then,  as  to 
form  and  general  structure,  the  contrast  is  of  the  most 
marked  character.     In  the  Larva  state  it  was  a  slow, 
crawling  animal,  but  in  the  Imago  state  it  is  light,  per- 
haps delicate  in  structure,  and  is  nimble  on  the  wing. 
And  the  change  is  as  great  internally  as  it  is  externally. 
Its  stomach  even  is  changed,  for  its  mode  of  getting  a 
livelihood  is  different  now.     There  are  corresponding 
changes  also  about  the  mouth,  a  coiled  tongue  perhaps 
appearing  in  place  of  the  formidable  gnawing  apparatus 
of  the  larva.     In  relation  to  this  change  it  has  been  well 


THE   METAMOEPHOSIS    OF   INSECTS.  237 

said,  "  Were  a  naturalist  to  announce  to  the  world  the 
discovery  of  an  animal  which  for  the  first  five  years  of 
its  life  existed  in  the  form  of  a  serpent ;  which  then,  pene- 
trating into  the  earth,  and  wearing  a  shroud  of  pure  silk 
of  the  finest  texture,  contracted  itself  within  this  cover- 
ing into  a  body  without  external  mouth  or  limbs,  and  re- 
sembling more  than  any  thing  else  an  Egyptian  mummy ; 
and  which,  lastly,  after  remaining  in  this  state  for  three 
yedrs  longer,  should,  at  the  end  of  that  period,  burst  its 
cerements,  struggle  through  its  earthy  covering,  and 
start  into  day  a  winged  bird,  what  would  be  the  sensa- 
tion excited  by  this  piece  of  intelligence  ?"  And  yet  this 
would  be  no  more  wonderful  than  the  ordinary  metamor- 
phosis of  Insects.  Indeed,  many  of  the  most  marvelous 
circumstances  in  this  change  are  not  at  all  referred  to  in 
the  supposition  above  made. 

406.  The  larva  is  produced  from  an  egg,  and  the  egg 
is  laid  by  the  perfect  Insect  or  Imago.  When  the  larva 
is  first  hatched  it  is  very  small,  but  it  grows  with  a  ra- 
pidity always  great,  in  some  cases  enormous.  The  mag- 
gots of  flesh  Flies  are  said  to  increase  in  weight  two 
hundred  times  in  twenty-four  hours.  To  make  such  an 
increase  these  animals  must  eat  voraciously.  With  the 
great  multiplication  of  their  number,  the  amount  which 
a  collection  of  them  will  sometimes  devour  is  wonderful. 
Linnasus  calculated  that  three  flesh  Flies  and  their  imme- 
diate progeny  would  eat  up  the  carcass  of  a  horse  sooner 
than  a  lion  would  do  it. 

407."  In  the  Imago  state  the  Insect  eats  but  little,  as  it 
grows  little  or  none  ordinarily.  The  Butterfly  or  Moth 
comes  forth  from  its  prison  fully  grown ;  but  the  cater- 
pillar from  which  it  was  formed  was  very  small  at  the 
outset,  and  became  large  by  large  eating.  Our  common 
Flies  are  small  and  delicate  eaters,  but  the  Maggots,  the 
Iarva3  from  which  they  came,  rioting  in  filth,  devour 
largely  what  the  Flies  will  not  touch. 

408.  The  great  growth  of  larvae  obliges  them  to  cast 


238  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

their  skins  repeatedly.  The  Silkworm  and  other  cater- 
pillars cast  their  skins  about  four  times  during  their 
growth. 

409.  Insects  pass  the  time  of  their  pupa  state  under 
various  circumstances.     Some,  when  about  going  into 
this  state,  crawl  into  some  by-place  away  from  intruders. 
Some  work  their  way  into  the  ground,  and  perhaps  spin 
a  silken  lining  for  the  earth-cells  in  which  they  are  to 
sleep  through  their  change.     Some  roll  themselves  up  in 
leaves.     Some  construct  for  themselves  a  silken  house, 
called  a  cocoon,  attached  to  some  leaf  or  twig. 

410.  Among  those  that  do  this  last  is  the  Silkworm. 
The  formation  of  the  cocoon  I  will  describe.     When  the 
worm  has  its  silk  factory,  which  is  near  its  mouth,  prop- 
erly stocked  with  the  gummy  pulp  from  which  the  silk 
is  to  be  spun,  it  seeks  a  good  place  where  it  can  have  a 
sort  of  scaifolding  for  its  cocoon.     It  first  spins  some 
loose  floss,  attaching  it  to  things  around.     Next  it  be- 
gins to  wind  its  silk  round  and  round,  making  a  cocoon 
at  length,  shaped  much  like  a  pigeon's  egg,  being  smaller 
at  one  end  than  the  other.    It  thus  gradually  shuts  itself 
up  in  a  silken  prison.     The  last  of  the  silk  which  it  spins 
is  the  most  delicate  of  all,  and  it  is  well  glued  together, 
making  a  very  smooth  surface  next  to  the  Silkworm's 
body.     The  silken  house  being  constructed,  it  now  pre- 
pares itself  for  its  sleep  and  its  change.    It  sheds  its  skin 
now  for  the  fourth  and  last  time,  tucking  its  old  clothes, 
as  we  may  say,  very  snugly  at  one  end  of  the  cocoon.    It 
then  passes  into  its  sleep,  and  a  new  and  thin  s"kin  is 
formed  over  it,  in  which  it  gradually  changes  into  an  an- 
imal endowed  with  wings.    At  the  proper  time  it  works 
its  way  out  of  its  prison,  unfolds  its  wings,  and  flies  off, 
not  to  eat  mulberry  leaves,  as  it  did  in  its  larva  state,  but 
to  sip  the  honey  from  the  flowers. 

411.  Observe  the  manner  of  its  exit  and  the  arrange- 
ments for  it.    The  head  is  always  at  the  small  end  of  the 
cocoon,  and  here  the  silk  is  less  closely  wound  and  less 


THE   METAMORPHOSIS    OP   INSECTS.  239 

tightly  cemented  by  the  gluey  substance.  The  old  clothes 
are  always  at  the  other  end,  so  as  not  to  be  in  the  way. 
The  new  coat  which  was  formed  as  it  entered  the  pupa 
state  is  easily  torn,  and  the  Moth,  moistening  the  cocoon 
with  a  fluid  from  its  mouth  at  the  part  where  it  is  to  es- 
cape, easily  forces  its  way  through.  The  opening  from 
which  it  emerges  is  very  small,  and  the  shape  of  the  an- 
imal before  it  expands  its  wings  is  that  of  a  long  bundle. 

412.  The  thread  with  which  the  worm  makes  its  co- 
coon is  an  unbroken  one.     It  can,  therefore,  be  unwound 
or  reeled  off,  which  is  done  in  o  staining  it  for  manufac- 
ture.    For  this  purpose  the  cocoons  are  exposed  to  the 
heat  of  an  oven  in  order  to  kill  the  pupaB  in  them,  and 
then,  by  a  little  soaking  in  warm  water,  the  glutinous 
matter  which  unites  the  silk  is  so  softened  that  the  thread 
can  be  readily  unwound.    The  length  of  it  varies  from  six 
hundred  to  a  thousand  feet ;  and  as  it  is  double  as  spun 
out  by  the  insect,  its  real  length  is  nearly  two  thousand 
feet.    So  fine  is  this  double  thread,  that  the  silk  that 
comes  from  one  cocoon  does  not  weigh  above  three 
and  a  half  grams,  and  it  requires  ten  thousand  cocoons 
to  supply  five  pounds  of  silk.     The  native  countries  of 
the  Silkworm  are  China  and  the  East  Indies ;  and  in  an- 
cient tunes  the  manufacture  of  silk  was  confined  to  them. 
So  scarce  was  the  article  in  other  countries,  even  as  late 
as  James  I.  of  England,  that  this  monarch,  before  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  wore  on  some  public  occasion  a 
borrowed  pair  of  silk  stockings.     But  at  the  present 
time  the  culture  of  the  Silkworm  and  the  manufacture 
of  silk  are  so  widely  diffused,  that  silk  is  every  where, 
in  civilized  communities,  one  of  the  common  articles  of 
dress. 

413.  When  a  pupa  is  to  remain  out  of  doors  all  the 
winter,  special  pains  are  taken  to  guard  it  against  the 
cold.     For  this  purpose  great  numbers  of  Insects  in  the 
autumn  dig  their  way  down  into  the  ground,  and  pass 
their  pupa  state  in  an  earthy  cell  below  the  reach  of 


240 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


THE   METAMORPHOSIS    OF   INSECTS. 


241 


frost.  Some  line  this  cell  with  silk,  making  thus  a  soft 
covering  for  the  body,  and  shutting  out  more  effectually 
the  cold.  Some  of  the  caterpillars  accomplish  the  same 
object  by  constructing  above  ground  a  cocoon  specially 
adapted  to  guard  against  the  cold.  This  is  exemplified 
in  the  case  of  one  of  the  largest  and  most  splendid  of 

our  American  Moths 
— the  Cecropia  Moth, 
Fig.  186  (p.  240).  It 
is  found,  as  Professor 
Jaeger  states,  all  the 
way  from  the  Canadas 
to  the  Mexican  Gulf, 
and  also  in  all  the  West- 
ern States.  It  has  large 
wings,  measuring  five 
to  six  inches  from  tip 
to  tip.  The  scales  on 
them,  §  397,  are  dusky 
brown.  The  borders 
of  the  wings  are  richly 
variegated,  the  anterior 
ones  having  near  their 
tops  a  dark  spot  re- 
sembling an  eye,  and 
both  pairs  having  kid- 
ney-shaped red  spots. 
,  414.  In  this  case  the 
caterpillar,  or  larva, 
Fig.  187,  is  nearly  as 
beautiful  in  colors  as 
the  perfect  insect  or 
imago.  It  is  of  a  light 
green  color,  and  has 
coral-red  warts,  with 
short  black  bristles, 

Fig.  187 — The  Caterpillar,  or  Larva.  Over  its  body.     It  feeds 

L 


242  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

on  the  leaves  of  trees  till  August  or  September,  and  then 
descends  to  seek  for  some  currant  or  barberry  bush  upon 
which  it  may  build  its  house  for  its  whiter  sleep.  "  Any 
one,"  says  Professor  Jaeger,  "who  meets  with  these 
caterpillars  in  the  above-mentioned  months  may  have 
the  pleasure  of  witnessing  their  metamorphosis  into  co- 
coons, and  several  months  after  into  an  elegant  moth,  by 
taking  them  up  very  carefully  upon  leaves  and  carrying 
them  home,  placing  them  in  a  spacious  box,  with  a  little 
undisturbed  earth  at  the  bottom,  and  then  putting  into 
it  some  dry  brush-wood,  about  one  foot  high,  and  cover- 
ing the  whole  with  gauze  in  order  to  prevent  their  es- 
cape." 

415.  I  will  now  describe  the  peculiar  construction  of 
the  cocoon.  That  of  the  Silkworm  is  a  simple  cocoon, 
no  special  provision  being  made  against  the  cold,  as  the 
pupa  state,  instead  of  lasting  through  the  whiter  months, 
is  finished  in  a  few  weeks.  But  hi  the  case' of  the  Ce- 
cropia  Moth  there  is  a  covering  outside  of  the  proper 
cocoon.  This  covering  is  fastened  to  a  branch  of  some 
bush,  as  in  Fig.  188.  It  is  made  very  strong,  as  its  fibres 


Fig.  188. 


are  much  more  closely  joined  together  than  those  of  the 
cocoon  inside  of  it.  Often  there  are  leaves  attached  to 
it,  leaving  the  impression  of  their  veins  or  nerves  upon 
it  when  you  have  detached  them.  The  animal  evidently 
uses  these  leaves  as  a  sort  of  scaffolding  when  it  begins 
to  construct  its  winter  home.  In  spinning  this  covering 
it  works  all  the  while  inside,  as  it  does  in  spinning  the 
cocoon.  After  finishing  it,  it  lines  it  with  coarse  loose 


THE   METAMORPHOSIS    OP   INSECTS.  243 

silk,  and  then  proceeds  to  spin  its  cocoon  in  the  same 
way  that  the  Silkworm  does,  making  it  of  the  same  shape. 
The  loose  silk  between  the  cocoon  and  the  outer  cover- 
ing is  blanketing  for  the  purpose  of  warmth.  By  these 
means  the  pupa  or  chrysalis  is  secured  against  dampness 
and  cold,  and  amid  all  the  storms  of  winter  is  even  more 
safe  from  harm  than  an  infant  in  its  cradle  under  the 
watch  of  an  anxious  mother. 

416.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Silkworm  Moth,  the  Ce- 
cropia  always  comes  out  at  the  smaller  end,  and  here 
both  the  cocoon  and  the  outer  covering  are  made  less 
close  and  strong  than  in  the  other  portions.     In  New 
England  this  Moth  comes  forth  in  June.     Last  year  I 
obtained  from  my  garden  two  cocoons  which  were  near 
each  other  on  a  currant  bush.     I  gave  one  to  a  lad  living 
on  Staten  Island,  and  retained  the  other  myself.     His 
Moth  came  out  three  weeks  before,  mine,  corresponding 
with  the  advance  of  the  season  there  before  ours.    When 
mine  emerged  I  caught  the  same  evening  in  my  house 
two  others,  and  on  the  following  evening  three  more. 
As  we  saw  none  before  or  after,  this  seems  to  show  that 
these  Moths  come  forth  almost  simultaneously  in  the 
same  locality. 

417.  Dr.  Harris,  in  his  work  on  the  Insects  of  New 
England,  recommends  a  trial  of  the  manufacture  of  silk 
from  the  cocoons  of  the  Cecropia  and  some  other  of 
our  large  indigenous  Moths.     "Their  large  cocoons," 
he  saysr "  consisting  entirely  of  silk,  the  fibres  of  which 
far  surpass  those  of  the  Silkworm  in  strength,  might  be 
employed  in  the  formation  of  fabrics  similar  to  those 
manufactured  in  India  from  the  cocoons  of  the  Tusseh 
and  Arindi  Silkworms,  the  durability  of  which  is  such 
that  a  garment  of  Tusseh  silk  is  scarcely  worn  out  in  the 
lifetime  of  one  person,  but  often  descends  from  mother 
to  daughter ;  and  even  the  covers  of  palanquins  made 
of  it,  though  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  weather, 
last  many  years.     Experiments  have  been  made  with 


244 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Fig.  189.— Silk  of  the  (Jecropia. 


the  silk  of  the  Cecro- 
pia,  which  has  been 
carded  and  spun,  and 
woven  into  stockings 
that  wash  like  linen." 
The  silk  can  be  very 
readily  reeled  off 
from  the  cocoons  as 
seen  in  Fig.  189. 

418.  Some  Insects 
go  through  an  im- 
perfect metamorpho- 
sis, as  the  Grasshop- 
pers and  the  Locusts. 
They  are  produced 
from  the  eggs  without  wings,  but  have  them  formed 
gradually  while  they  are  in  a  state  of  activity. 

Questions. — What  are  the  three  changes  which  most  Insects  pass 
through  in  their  metamorphosis  ?  Explain  the  terms  larva,  pupa, 
and  imago.  What  are  the  different  names  applied  to  larvae  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  terms  chrysalis  and  aurelia  ?  What  is  said  of  the  con- 
trast between  the  larva  and  imago  states?  What  is  said  of  the 
growth  of  the  larva?  What  of  the  growth  of  the  imago?  What  of 
the  casting  of  the  skin  of  the  larva?  What  is  said  of  the  various 
modes  of  passing  the  pupa  state  ?  Describe  the  manner  in  which  the 
Silkworm  makes  its  cocoon.  Describe  the  mode  of  its  exit.  What 
is  said  of  the  thread  of  which  the  cocoon  is  made  ?  What  are  the  na- 
tive countries  of  the  Silkworm  ?  What  is  said  of  the  silk  manufac- 
ture? When  pupse  are  to  be  out  doors  all  winter,  what  provisions 
are  adopted  to  guard  against  the  cold  ?  Describe  the  Cecropia  Moth. 
Describe  its  caterpillar.  Describe  the  construction  of  its  cocoon. 
What  is  said  of  its  exit?  What  is  said  of  the  manufacture  of  silk 
from  the  cocoons  of  this  and  other  large  Moths?  What  is  said  of 
Grasshoppers  and  Locusts  ? 


COLEOPTERA,  OR   SHEATH-WINGED   INSECTS.         245 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

COLEOPTERA,  OR   SHEATH-WINGED   INSECTS. 

419.  I  NOW  pass  to  the  consideration  of  the  different 
orders  of  Insects,  noticing  particularly  some  of  each  or- 
der.   They  are  arranged  in  orders  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  wings.     They  are  chiefly  the  following:  1. 
Coleoptera  (jcoAeoe,  Jcoleos,  a  sheath,  and  Trrepov,  pteron,  a 
wing),  Sheath- winged.    This  is  the  order  of  Beetles.    2. 
Orthoptera  (dp0o£,  orthos,  straight,  and  Tn-epov),  Straight- 
winged.     This  includes  the  Grasshoppers,  Locusts,  etc. 
3.  Neurdptera  (vevpov,  neuron,  nerve,  and  Trrepov),  Nerve- 
winged.     4.  Hymenoptera  (fyuev,  humen,  a  membrane, 
and  Trrepov),  Membrane- winged,  including  the  Bees,  Wasps, 
etc.     5.  Lepidoptera  (XCTTI?,  lepis,  a  scale,  and  Trrcpov), 
Scale- winged.     The  Butterflies  and  Moths.     6.  Hemip- 
tera  (fyuurve,  hemisus,  half,  and  Trrepov),  Half- winged,  in- 
cluding Bugs,  Cicada},  etc.     7.  Diptera  (&e,  dis,  twice, 
and  Trrcpov),  Two-winged.     Flies,  Musquitoes,  etc.     8. 
Aphaniptera  (d^av^e,  aphanes,  not  manifest,  and  Trrepov). 
The  Fleas  belong  to  this  order.     9.  Aptera,  Wingless. 
The  prefix  a  in  this  case  is  privative  or  negative.     The 
common  louse,  sugar-lice,  spring-tails,  etc.,  belong  to  this 
order.     There  are  some  other  orders,  which  are  small, 
however,  and  of  little  importance. 

420.  The  order  of  Coleoptera,  or  Sheath-winged  In- 
sects, is  the  most  numerous  of  all  the  orders.     "  It  is 
probable,"  says  Carpenter,  "  that  from  thirty  to  forty 
thousand  species  of  Beetles  alone  now  exist  in  the  cabi- 
nets of  collectors  ;  and  we  may  safely  affirm  that  at  least 
as  many  more  remain  to  be  discovered."     They  are  of 
various  size,  some  being  very  small,  and  others  among 
the  largest  of  Insects.     There  are  some  that  are  five 


246  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

inches  in  length.  The  Beetles,  when  not  flying,  appear 
to  have  no  wings.  The  elytra,  §  398,  are  horny,  and  fit 
closely  together  on  the  back.  These  are  sometimes  very 
beautiful,  even  splendid,  having  various  colors,  golden, 
green,  blue,  etc.  I  have  seen  them  in  some  cases  with 
depressions  in  them  spotted  with  gold,  exactly  as  if  real 
gold-leaf  were  inserted  by  powerful  pressure.  The  wings, 
which  are  commonly  twice  as  large  as  the  elytra  in  length 
as  well  as  in  breadth,  are  folded  up  under  these  covers 
very  curiously  when  the  insect  is  not  on  the  wing.  There 
are  only  a  few  exceptions  in  the  whole  order  to  this 
mode  of  arrangement. 

421.  The  metamorphosis  in  this  order  is  complete. 
The  larvae  are  worm-like,  having  soft  bodies,  but  they 
commonly  have  horny  heads.     Those  which  lead  a  re- 
tired, still  life,  as  those  which  are  in  nuts,  have  no  legs, 
for  they  need  none.     Those  larvae  which  are  carnivorous 
have  the  strongest  legs.     In  some  of  the  herbivorous 
species,  besides  the  true  legs,  there  are  fleshy  tubercles, 
which  are  called  pro-legs.     Previously  to  entering  the 
pupa  state  the  larva  often  forms  a  case  for  itself  of  bits 
of  earth,  or  of  chips,  which  it  unites  together  by  silken 
threads  or  with  a  gluey  substance.     The  pupae  of  some 
Beetles  are  inactive  for  years. 

422.  Beetles,  as  suggested  by  Professor  Jaeger,  are 
of  three  kinds:    1.  Carnivorous  Beetles:  they  devour 
living  insects,  and  are  the  beasts  of  prey  of  the  insect 
world.    2.  Scavenger  Beetles,  which  live  on  putrid  mat- 
ter, carrion,  and  decaying  vegetable  substances.    3.  Her- 
bivorous Beetles,  which  feed  on  living  plants  and  fruits. 
The  first  two  kinds  are  of  great  use  to  man,  but  the  last 
are  injurious.    I  will  notice  a  few  of  each  kind. 

423.  Of  the  Carnivorous  Beetles,  the  Lady-birds,  so 
called,  are  known  to  almost  every  one.     They  look  like 
little  colored  and  spotted  turtles.     The  larvae  of  these 
Beetles  are  of  great  service  to  man,  for  they  prey  upon 
the  plant-lice  which  are  so  destructive  to  many  plants, 


COLEOPTERA,  OR   SHEATH-WINGED   INSECTS.         247 

being  more  effective  in  this  respect  than  the  Beetles 
themselves.     They  are  about  half  an  inch  long,  of  a 
bluish  color  with  four  or  six  yellow  spots,  and  are  seen 
creeping  along  branches  and  leaves  in  search  of  the 
plant-lice.    After  living  in  the  larva  state  for  a  fortnight, 
they  fasten  themselves  on   some  leaf, 
^\M^S          cast  °ff  th6"*  skins,  spin  a  cocoon,  and, 
/K  '    MTV      a^ter  a  f01^11^^'8  sleeP>  issue  as  Lady- 
?    J^l^l  birds.     One  of  the  species,  the  North- 

f%i!lPn          ern  Lady-bird,  is  seen  in  Fig.  190.     It 
*  V      is  found  chiefly  on  the  pumpkin  vine, 

Fig'  L9ad~b£dthem    W^ere»  in  *he  company  of  their  larvae, 
they  feed  on  the  Plant-lice  and  the  lar- 
vae of  the  Squash  Bug. 

424.  The  Tiger  Beetles,  of  which  two   species  are 

•  represented  in  Figs.  191 

and  192,  are  thus  named 
both  on  account  of  their 
variegated  colors  and 
their  rapacity.  They  feed 
on  Caterpillars,  Flies,  and 
other  Beetles,  and  will 

Figs.  191,  192.— Tiger  Beetles  ,  ,         , . 

even  devour  each  other 

when  shut  up  together.  Their  larvae  or  grubs  are  as 
rapacious  as  they  are  themselves.  They  live  in  holes 
which  they  dig  in  the  ground.  When  they  are  hungry 
they  come  to  the  mouth  of  their  holes,  and  there  keep 
watch,  seizing  the  first  insect  that  .passes  over  the  hole. 
Though  these  grubs  are  soft  and  white,  they  have  pow- 
erful and  well-armed  jaws,  with  which  they  gratify  their 
rapacity. 

425.  In  Figs.  193  and  194  (p.  248)  you  have  two  spe- 
cies of  Caterpillar-hunters,  so  called  from  their  habits. 
They  are  very  handsome  Beetles.     The  green  Caterpil- 
lar-hunter, Fig.  193,  is  a  great  devourer  of  the  Canker- 
worm.     These  Beetles  run  about  in  the  grass  after  the 
worms,  and  go  up  the  trunks  of  the  trees  to  capture 
them  as  they  come  down. 


248  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Figs;  193  and  194— Caterpillar-hunters. 

426.  The  Scavenger  Beetles,  forming  the  second  divi- 
sion, have  very  fine  coverings,  and  their  feet  are  fitted  for 
digging.     Though  they  are  not  only  in  the  midst  of 
filth,  but  live  on  it,  they  are  remarkably  clean,  and  are 
generally  of  a  bright  color,  and  some  of  them  are  very 
beautiful.     These  Beetles,  and  their  grubs,  are  of  great 
service  as  scavengers.     Although  each  one  does  but  lit- 
tle, the  multitude  of  them  clear  up  a  great  deal  of  filth, 
which  would  otherwise  offend  our  senses  and  injure  the 
health.    Those  Beetles  of  this  class  which  are  of  very 
large  size,  sometimes  five  inches  in  length,  are  found  in 
the  tropical  regions  of  America,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

427.  To  this  class  belong  the  common  Tumble-bugs, 
or  Pellet  Beetles.     These  exhibit  great  industry  in  roll- 
ing balls  of  manure,  and  earth  mingled  together.     In 
every  one  of  these  is  deposited  an  egg.     These  busy  an- 
imals dig  holes  two  or  three  feet  deep,  and  into  these 
they  roll  the  balls.     While  they  thus  provide  for  their 
progeny,  they  are  at  the  same  time  useful  in  distributing 
manure  among  the  roots  of  plants  where  it  is  wanted. 

428.  To  this  group  also  belong  the  Carrion  Beetles, 
of  which  there  are  many  species,  some  of  them  very 
beautiful.     They  are  exceedingly  busy  wherever  there 
is  the  dead  body  of  any  animal,  devouring  it  and  depos- 


COLEOPTEKA,  OB    SHEATH-WINGED    INSECTS.          249 

iting  in  it  and  upon  it  their  eggs.  The  Crusader  Carrion 
Beetle,  Fig.  195,  is  thus  named  by  Jae- 
ger from  a  black  spot  on  the  back  of  its 
yellow  thorax,  which  resembles  some- 
what the  figure  of  a  cross  which  the  Cru- 
saders wore  on  their  coats.  The  wing- 
Fig  195  -The  cru-  covers> or  elytra,  are  brown,  and  the  head 
eader  carrion  Beetle,  and  legs  are  black.  These  Beetles  are 
seen  in  immense  multitudes  in  some  carrion.  The  habits 
of  the  Big  Gravedigger  are  very  curious.  It  gathers  in 
great  numbers  round  a  dead  frog,  or  mouse,  or  bird,  etc. 
The  Beetles  first  examine  the  spot  where  the  dead  body 
lies ;  if  it  be  stony,  they  select  a  proper  place,  and,  by 
their  combined  efforts,  remove  the  body  there.  They 
now  proceed  to  dig  the  earth  away  from  under  it  with 
their  fore  feet,  and  do  not  leave  it  till  they  have  sunken 
it  about  a  foot  in  the  ground. 

429.  There  is  a  very  small  Beetle  of  this  class  which 
is  a  great  destroyer  of  the  collections  of  the  naturalist, 
eating  the  skins  of  stuffed  animals,  and  the  internal  parts 
of  insects.     It  is  hence  called  the  Cabinet  Beetle.     It  is 
difficult  often  to  keep  a  cabinet  free  from  them,  for  their 
larvae  will  eat  through  the  hardest  boards. 

430.  Among  the  Scavenger  Beetles  are  some  wood- 
eating  insects.     These  are  of  great  service  in  tropical 
countries,  where  large  trees  are  prostrated  in  great  num- 
bers by  hurricanes  and  tempests.     It  would  take  a  long 
time  for  the  natural  process  of  decay  to  remove  them; 
but  these  insects  reduce  them  to  dust  in  a  short  time, 
and  this  dust,  becoming  incorporated  with  the  earth,  fer- 
tilizes it.    The  common  Horn  Bug  or  Stag  Beetle  belongs 
to  this  group.     The  Stag  Beetle  of  Europe  is  twice  as 
large  as  that  of  this  country.     It  is  the  grubs  that  live 
on  wood,  and  not  the  Beetles  themselves.     The  grubs 
of  some  of  the  wood-eating  Beetles  are  some  years  in  ar- 
riving at  the  mature  state  in  which  they  are  ready  to 
change  into  Beetles. 

L  2 


250  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

431.  The  Herbivorous  Beetles  live  on  vegetable  food 
both  in  their  larva  and  imago  state.     Some  eat  fruits, 
some  grain,  some  leaves,  and  some  even  wood.     Science 
has  been  of  great  service  in  pointing  out  the  Insects  that 
inflict  these  various  injuries,  and  also  in  indicating  the 
means  of  prevention  by  discovering  the  habits  of  these 
animals. 

432.  To  this  class  belong  the  Spring  Beetles,  some- 
times called  Skippers  or  Snapping  Bugs.     They  are  so 
constructed  that  when  they  are  laid  on  the  back  they 
can  throw  themselves  upward,  and  coming  down  alight 
on  their  feet.     This  performance,  which  is  a  great  amuse- 
ment to  children,  is  done  by  a  spring  which  the  animal 
has  hi  its  body  for  this  purpose.     The  largest  and  hand- 
somest of  these  Beetles  in  the  United  States  is  the  Vel- 
vet-spotted Spring  Beetle.     Another  species  of  the  same 
genus  is  the  Lightning  Spring  Beetle,  Fig.  1 96.     This  In- 
sect, which  is  nearly  an  inch  and 
a  half  long,  has  two  yellow  cone- 
like  projections  on  the  sides  of 
the  thorax,  which  emit  light,  and 
appear,  while  the  animal  is  alive, 
like  two  shining  emeralds.     It 
also  emits  light  from  the  under 
surface  of  the  segments  of  the 
abdomen.    In  Cuba  ladies  fasten 
these  Beetles  in  their  hair  as  or- 

.  196.— The  Lightning  spring   naments  at  evening  parties.   The 
light  of  our  common  Fireflies  is 

emitted  from  two  or  three  segments  of  the  abdomen,  as 
you  may  see  by  catching  one,  and  holding  it  in  your 
hand  turned  over  on  its  back. 

433.  The  Capricorn  Beetles  are  so  named  from  the  re- 
semblance  of  their  long  antennae  to  the  horns  of  the 
Mountain  Goat.     These  Beetles  are  very  beautiful,  al- 
though their  grubs  are  ugly.     The  Painted  Capricorn 
appears  with  us  in  the  autumn,  and  may  be  seen  in  the 


COLEOPTERA,  OR   SHEATH-WINGED   INSECTS.         251 

flowers  of  the  golden-rod.  Its  body  looks  like  black  vel- 
vet. Its  head  and  chest  are  crossed  with  yellow  lines, 
and  its  elytra  have  lines  of  the  same  color  variously  ar- 
ranged. The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  crevices 
of  the  bark  of  locust-trees,  and  the  grubs  hatched  from 
them  eat  the  wood  and  the  pith,  making  winding  pas- 
sages in  doing  this,  and,  of  course,  proving  destructive  to 
many  of  these  trees.  There  is  in  the  southern  parts  of 
our  country  a  Beetle  of  this  family  three  and  a  half  inches 
long,  called  the  Stag  Beetle  Capricorn,  because  its  formi- 
dable jaws,  an  inch  in  length,  are  like  those  of  the  Stag 
Beetles.  In  South  America  is  found  a  splendid  Beetle, 
called  the  Long-armed  Capricorn,  its  fore  legs  being  five 
inches  in  length.  It  is  of  a  dark  olive-green  color,  with 
markings  of  red,  yellow,  and  white,  resembling  hiero- 
glyphics. 

434.  The  Spanish  Fly,  which  is  used  in  making  the 
common  blistering  plaster,  is  an  herbivorous  Beetle.     It 
has  a  brilliant  green  metallic  hue.     It  is  the  powder  of 
the  dried  Beetles  that  makes  the  basis  of  the  blistering 
salve — another  example  of  animal  chemistry  both  won- 
derful and  mysterious,  §  170. 

435.  The  Curculios  or  Weevils  are  a  family  of  herbiv- 
orous Beetles  that  do  great  injury  to  fruits  and  grains. 
The  perfect  insect  deposits  its  eggs  in  them,  and  the 
grubs  or  maggots  live  on  the  substance  in  which  they 
are  hatched.     Thus  a  little  hairy  gray  Beetle  deposits 
its  eggs  in  the  young  and  tender  peapod,  and  the  larvae 
hatched  from  them  eat  portions  of  the  peas  as  they  grow. 
Multitudes  of  these  larvae  are  boiled  in  the  peas  prepared 
for  the  table.     So  also  in  almost  every  seed-pea  there  is 
either  a  Beetle  or  an  opening  from  which  one  has  come 
out.     In  the  same  way  the  maggot  found  in  the  chest- 
nut comes  from  an  egg  deposited  in  it  by  a  Beetle  in  an 
early  stage  of  the  fruit.     So  also  in  the  apple  and  other 
fruits. 

436.  These  "Weevils,  or  Snout  Beetles,  have  an  appa- 


252  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ratus  for  boring  holes  in  the  grains  and  fruits,  as  you  see 
in  the  Palm  Weevil,  Fig.  197.  "  Its  larvae,"  says  Jaeger, 
"  are  known  in  the  tropics  of 
America  under  the  name  of  Palm- 
worms,  and  they  live  in  large 
numbers  in  the  trunks  of  several 
palm-trees,  but  principally  in  the 
cabbage  -palm,  which  grows  in 
abundance  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  St.  Domingo.  When 
fully  grown  they  are  about  three 
inches  long  and  one  inch  in  cir- 
cumference, of  a  dirty  yellow 
color,  with  a  black  head,  looking 
like  a  piece  of  fat  enveloped  in  a 
transparent  skin.  These  disgust- 
ing-looking animals  are  roasted 
Fig.  197.—  Paim  weeva.  upon  a  wooden  spit,  or  broiled 
and  eaten  with  dry  and  pulverized  bread,  seasoned  with 
salt  and  pepper,  and  considered  by  many  epicures  as  the 
ne  plus  ultra  of  delicacies." 

437.  The  Leaf-eaters,  which  live  mostly  on  leaves  and 
flowers,  are  very  small  Beetles,  very  richly  colored. 
Among  the  most  brilliant  is  the  Gilded  Dandy,  Fig.  198, 
found  abundantly  on  the  dog-bane  in  July 
and  August.  The  larvae  or  grubs  of  the 
Leaf-eaters  have  six  legs,  as  they  must 
crawl  about  in  getting  their  food,  instead 
of  remaining  in  one  spot  as  the  fruit-eating 
grubs  of  the  Weevils  do. 


Questions.  —  Name  the  orders  of  Insects,  and  give  the  chief  charac- 
teristics of  each.  What  is  the  extent  of  the  order  Coleoptera  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  size  of  the  insects  belonging  to  it?  What  is  said  of  the 
elytra?  What  is  said  of  the  larva}  of  Beetles?  'What  are  the  three 
kinds  of  Beetles  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Lady-bird  ?  What  of  the  Ti- 
ger Beetles  ?  What  of  the  Caterpillar-hunters  ?  What  of  the  Scav- 
enger Beetles  ?  Of  the  Pellet  Beetles  ?  Of  the  Carrion  Beetles  ? 


STKAIGHT-WINGED   INSECTS.  253 

Of  the  Crusader  Carrion  Beetle  ?  Of  the  Big  Gravedigger  ?  Of  the 
Cabinet  Beetle  ?  Of  the  Wood-eating  Beetles  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
herbivorous  Beetles?  Of  the  Spring  Beetles?  Of  the  Lightning 
Spring  Beetle  ?  What  gives  the  name  to  the  Capricorn  Beetles  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Painted  Capricorn  ?  Of  the  Stag  Beetle  Capri- 
corn? Of  the  Long-armed  Capricorn  ?  Of  the  Spanish  Fly  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Curculios  ?  What  of  the  Palm  Weevil  ?  What  of  the 
Leaf-eaters  ? 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

STRAIGHT-WINGED   INSECTS. 

438.  THE  second  order  is  that  of  the  Orthoptera,  or 
Straight-winged  Insects.     Their  wings,  when  not  in  use, 
are  folded  lengthwise  like  a  fan,  and  are  extended  straight 
along  the  top  or  the  sides  of  the  back.    These  are  cover- 
ed by  a  pair  of  thicker  wings,  or,  rather,  wing-shaped 
members,  which  in  the  Grasshoppers  and  the  Locusts  are 
long  and  narrow,  and  are  joined  together  on  the  back, 
making  two  slopes  like  the  roof  of  a  house.    These  wing- 
covers  are  intermediate  between  the  stiff,  horny  elytra  of 
.the  Beetles  and  the  membranous  wings  of  some  other 
insects. 

439.  The  insects  of  this  order  do  not  go  through  with 
a  complete  metamorphosis.    They  do  not  pass  at  all  into 
the  torpid  pupa  state,  but  are  active  during  the  whole 
period  of  their  existence.     At  first  they  are  destitute  of 
wings ;  but  they  become  winged  as  they  grow,  casting 
off  their  skins  about  six  times  during  the  process.    They 
are  divided  into  four  families:  1.  The  Cursoria,  or  Run- 
ners.    2.  The  Raptoria,  or  Graspers.     3.  The  Ambulato- 
ria,  or  Walkers.     4.  The  Saltatoria,  or  Jumpers. 

440.  The  family  of  Cursoria  includes  the  Cockroaches 
and  the  Earwigs.    There  are  with  us  two  kinds  of  Cock- 
roaches— the  native  ones,  found  under  stones  in  the  field, 
and  those  which  have,  like  the  Rats,  been  introduced 
from  other  countries,  and  live  in  our  houses.     These  vo- 


254  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

racious  animals,  troublesome  as  they  are  here,  are  vastly 
more  so  in  some  other  countries.  It  is  said  that  some 
houses  in  St.  Petersburg  became  so  infested  with  them 
that  no  one  could  live  in  them,  and  they  were  burned 
down  to  destroy  these  insects. 

441.  Earwigs  are  little  insects  having  a  pair  of  nippers, 
shutting  like  scissors,  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  body. 
They  eat  both  fruit  and  flowers,  disfiguring  the  latter 
with  holes.    They  are  very  timid,  running  for  some  crev- 
ice whenever  disturbed,  and  thinking  that  they  are  safe 
if  they  put  their  heads  under  cover,  and  thus  get  out 
of  sight  of  danger.     They  are  apt,  when  frightened,  to 
plunge  down  into  the  bottom  of  a  flower,  if  they  happen 
to  be  on  one,  leaving,  however,  their  curious  forked  tails 
standing  up  among  the  stamens.     Their  name  is  not  an 
appropriate  one,  for  they  have  really  never  been  known 
to  enter  the  human  ear.     These  insects  are  very  differ- 
ent from  the  animal  so  often  called  by  this  name  in  this 
country,  which  is  really  not  an  insect. 

442.  Among  the  Raptoria  is  that  singular  insect  the 
Mantis  Religiosa,  or  Praying  Mantis,  Fig.  199.    It  is  so 


Fig.  199.— Mantis  Religiosa. 

called  from  the  attitude  which  it  assumes  when  it  is 
watching  for  its  prey.  The  front  of  its  thorax  is  raised, 
and  the  two  fore  legs  are  held  up  together,  like  a  pair 
of  arms,  ready  to  seize  any  insect  that  may  come  within 
its  reach.  These  insects  are  extremely  voracious.  If 
two  are  kept  together  without  food,  they  fight  until  one 
is  killed,  and  the  victor  devours  his  adversary.  Fights 


STBAIGHT-WINGED   INSE( 

between  these  insects  are  among  the 
nese,  the  pleasure  being  the  same  as  thi 
rived  from  cock-fights  and  bull-fights. 

443.  The  family  of  the  Ambulatoria  is  a  very  small 
one,  including  those  very  singular  animals,  Walking- 
sticks,  Walking-leaves,  etc.  They  lead  a  sluggish  life 
among  the  branches  of  shrubs,  living  on  the  young 
shoots.  Their  color  and  shape  being  so  much  like  those 
of  things  around  them,  enable  them  commonly  to  escape 
observation.  Some  of  them,  as  the  Walking-stick,  Fig. 
200,  have  no  wings,  and  look  like  dead  twigs,  the  legs 


Fig,  200.— Walking-stick. 


appearing  like  little  branches.  There  are  found  of  this 
insect  twenty  species  in  South  America,  three  in  North 
America,  three  in  Europe,  forty  in  Asia,  twenty-seven  in 
Australia,  and  two  in  Africa.  The  Leaf  Insect,  Fig.  201, 
is  of  the  same  family.  It  is  found  in  South  America. 


Fig.  201.— The  Leaf  Insect. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


It  resembles  a  leaf  both  in  shape  and  color,  and  the 
wings  have  even  the  veinings  of  a  leaf. 

444.  The  family  of  Saltatoria,  or  Jumpers,  is  a  very 
extensive  one.  It  comprises  the  Crickets,  the  Grass- 
hoppers, and  the  Locusts.  The  Crickets  are  so  well 
known  to  you  that  I  need  not  describe  them.  They  are 
mostly  inhabitants  of  the  ground,  in  which  many  of  them 

burrow.  One  spe- 
cies, the  Mole  Crick- 
et, Figure  202,  is  so 
named  because  its 
anterior  extremities, 
and  its  general  habits 
also,  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  Mole. 
It  is  a  great  digger. 

female  forms>  ^ 


Fig.  202.-The  Mole  Cricket. 

connection  with  its  burrow,  a  smooth,  round  cell,  which, 
with  the  passage  leading  to  it,  resembles  a  bottle  with  a 
long  bent  neck.  Here  it  deposits  from  two  to  four  hund- 
red eggs.  The  Tree  Cricket,  Fig. 
203,  is  a  very  delicate  insect.  Its 
color  is  pale  ivory  ;  its  antennae  and 
legs  are  very  long,  and  its  wing- 
covers  are  thin,  and  are  prettily  or- 
namented with  three  oblique  raised 
lines.  Its  familiar  shrill  sound  is  pro- 
duced only  by  the  male  Cricket,  by 
raising  up  the  wing-covers  and  rub- 
bing them  together.  These  differ 
decidedly  from  the  other  members 
of  the  Cricket  tribe  in  living  wholly 
on  trees.  The  female  deposits  her 
eggs  in  the  autumn,  in  incisions  which 
she  makes  in  the  branches,  and  they  are  hatched  in  the 
following  summer,  the  young  Crickets  obtaining  their 
perfect  state  with  us  in  August. 


Fig.  '203.— Tree  Cricket. 


STRAIGHT-WINGED    INSECTS. 


257 


445.  The  Grasshoppers  differ  from  the  Crickets  in 
having  the  wing-covers,  which  in  the  latter  lie  horizon- 
tally flat,  so  arranged  as  to  make  two  slopes,  like  the 
roof  of  a  house.  Of  the  many  species  I  will  notice  but 
one,  the  well-known  Katydid  of  this  country.  It  is  about 
one  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  its  expanded  wings  meas- 
ure together  three  inches.  The  whole  insect  is  green, 
the  wings  being  pale  green,  and  the  wing-covers  a  dark 
green.  The  wings  are  gauze-like,  and  are  exceedingly 
delicate.  The  male,  as  seen  in  Fig.  204,  has,  at  the  base 


Fig.  204.— Male  Katydid. 

or  root  of  each  wing-cover,  a  stout  horny  ridge  surround- 
ing a  stiff,  thin  membrane,  making  two  drum-heads.  It 
is  by  the  rubbing  of  these  together  that  the  peculiar 
sound  .of  this  insect  is  produced.  The  female  Katydid 
has  no  such  apparatus,  and  therefore  is  perfectly  still. 
It  has  at  the  end  of  its  body,  as  seen  in  Fig.  205  (p.  258), 


258 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Fig.  205.— Female  Katydid. 

a  sword-like  instrument:  this  is  called  an  ovipositor — 
that  is,  an  instrument  for  depositing  the  eggs  in  their 
right  place.  With  it  the  insect  pierces  holes  in  the 
ground  in  the  autumn,  placing  the  eggs  there,  which  are 
hatched  the  following  year.  Some  time  elapses  between 
the  birth  of  the  Katydids  and  the  attainment  of  their 
growth,  and  the  full  production  of  their  wings,  which  is 
necessary  to  the  production  of  the  loud  sound  with  which 
they  greet  our  ears  at  night  in  the  latter  part  of  summer. 
446.  The  Locusts,  one  species  of  which  you  see  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  206,  have,  like  the  Grasshoppers,  the  roof- 
like  arrangement  of  the  wing-covers,  but  they  have  not 
that  peculiar  apparatus  for  the  production  of  sound  which 
the  Grasshoppers  have.  They  have  also  shorter  anten- 
nae and  stouter  legs.  They  are  insects  of  greater  power. 
In  some  parts  of  the  world  they  are  the  most  extensive- 


STRAIGHT-WINGED   INSECTS.  259 


ly  destructive  of  all  insects.  Some  species  are  occasion- 
ally quite  destructive  in  some  parts  of  this  country.  But 
it  is  in  Asia  and  Africa  that  they  appear  in  such  immense 
armies,  leaving  not  a  vestige  of  vegetation  in  their  track, 
eating  the  corn  and  the  grass  down  to  the  roots,  ancf 
stripping  the  trees  of  their  leaves.  Mr.  Gumming,  in  de- 
scribing the  flight  of  an  army  of  these  insects,  says,  "  I 
stood  looking  at  them  until  the  air  was  darkened  with 
their  masses,  while  the  plain  on  which  we  stood  became 
densely  covered  with  them.  Far  as  my  eye  could  reach, 
east,  west,  north,  and  south,  they  stretched  in  one  un- 
broken cloud,  and  more  than  an  hour  elapsed  before  their 
devastating  legions  had  swept  by."  These  insects  some- 
times make  incursions  into  Europe.  One  of  these  is  de- 
scribed by  Professor  Jaeger,  who  was  an  eyewitness  of 
it  as  he  was  traveling  in  Russia  in  1825  across  its  desert 
prairies.  The  carriage-wheels  moved  through  Locusts 
piled  up  to  the  height  of  two  feet.  This  state  of  things 
existed  over  a  wide  extent  of  country.  The  insects  were 
now  wingless ;  but  the  inhabitants  of  the  fertile  regions 
north  feared  that,  as  soon  as  their  wings  were  grown, 
they  would  come  north  and  devour  every  green  thing. 
Before  this  vast  insect  army  could  do  this,  the  Emperor 


260  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Alexander  sent  an  army  of  thirty  thousand  men  against 
it.  "  The  soldiers,"  says  Jaeger,  "  forming  a  line  of  sev- 
eral hundred  miles,  and  advancing  toward  the  south,  at- 
tacked them,  not  with  sword  and  gun,  but  with  more  an- 
cient implements — with  shovels.  They  collected  them, 
as  far  as  possible,  in  sacks,  and  burned  them."  Notwith- 
standing this  war  upon  them,  the  vegetation  was  destroy- 
ed by  them  to  a  great  extent. 

447.  The  ravages  of  the  Locust  are  often  adverted  to 
in  the  Bible,  and  the  descriptions  there  given  correspond 
with  those  of  modern  travelers.     They  are  spoken  of  as 
a  "  great  army,"  and  it  is  said  that  "  the  land  before  them 
is  as  the  Garden  of  Eden,  and  behind  them  a  desolate 
wilderness" — a  result  often  witnessed  at  the  present  day. 
The  manner  in  which  this  insect  army  makes  its  invasion 
is  most  graphically  described  in  the  second  chapter  of 
Joel. 

448.  Some  species  of  Locusts  are  eaten  now  in  the 
East  as  they  were  in  the  time  of  John  the  Baptist.     Mr. 
Cumming,  a  traveler  in  South  Africa,  thus  speaks  of 
them  as  food.    "  Locusts  afford  fattening  and  wholesome 
food  to  man,  birds,  and  all  sorts  of  beasts ;  cows  and 
horses,  lions,  jackals,  hyaenas,  antelopes,  elephants,  etc., 
devour  them.     We  met  a  party  of  Batlapis  carrying 
heavy  burdens  of  them  on  their  backs.     Our  dogs  made 
a  fine  feast  on  them.     The  cold,  frosty  night  had  render- 
ed them  unable  to  take  wing  until  the  sun  should  restore 
their  powers.     As  it  was  difficult  to  obtain  sufficient  food 
for  my  dogs,  I  and  Isaac  took  a  large  blanket,  which  we 
spread  under  a  bush  whose  branches  were  bent  to  the 
ground  with  the  mass  of  Locusts  which  covered  it,  and, 
having  shaken  the  branches,  in  an  instant  I  had  more 
Locusts  than  I  could  carry  on  my  back ;  these  we  roast- 
ed for  ourselves  and  our  dogs." 

Questions. — What  is  the  arrangement  of  the  wings  of  the  Orthop- 
tera?  What  is  said  of  the  metamorphosis  of  this  order?  What  are 
its  four  families  ?  What  does  the  family  Cursoria  include  ?  What 


NET- WINGED   INSECTS.  261 

is  said  of  the  Cockroaches?  What  of  the  Earwigs?  What  of  the 
Praying  Mantis  ?  What  of  the  Walking-stick  ?  Of  the  Leaf  In- 
sect ?  What  does  the  family  Saltatoria  include  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  Mole  Cricket  ?  Of  the  Tree  Cricket  ?  How  do  the  Grasshoppers 
differ  from  the  Crickets  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Katydid  ?  In  what 
way  is  its  ssund  produced?  How  do  the  Locusts  differ  from  the 
Grasshoppers  ?  In  what  countries  are  they  at  times  exceedingly  nu- 
merous ?  Describe  their  appearance  in  Russia  in  1825,  and  the  means 
taken  to  destroy  them.  What  is  said  of  their  ravages  ?  Give  the  de- 
scription from  the  Prophet  Joel  of  the  invasion  of  an  army  of  Locusts. 
What  is-  said  of  these  insects  as  food  ? 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

NET -WINGED    INSECTS. 

449.  THE  insects  of  the  order  Neuroptera,  or  Net- wing- 
ed Insects,  have,  like  the  Coleoptera  and  Orthoptera,  a 
mouth  fitted  for  mastication,  but  differ  from  them  in  their 
wings.  They  have  no  wing-covers,  but  there  are  com- 
monly four  thin  and  transparent  wings,  with  the  veins 
forming  a  delicate  net-work,  as  seen  in  Fig.  207  (p.  262). 
The  posterior  wings  are  ordinarily  as  large  as  the  ante- 
rior, but  in  some  species  they  are  quite  small,  and  in  some 
few  entirely  absent.  The  body  is  long,  slender,  and  soft. 
These  insects  are  of  intermediate  size,  none  being  either 
very  large  or  very  small.  There  are  about  a  thousand 
species.  The  metamorphosis  is  not  alike  in  all.  In  some 
it  is  complete,  the  larva  having  a  form  very  different  from 
the  imago  or  perfect  insect,  while  in  others  there  is  little 
difference  except  in  the  absence  of  wings  in  the  larva 
and  their  presence  in  the  imago,  as  in  the  Grasshoppers 
and  Locusts.  By  these  differences  the  order  is  naturally 
divided  into  two  groups,  in  the  first  of  which  the  insect 
is  active  during  its  pupa  state,  while  in  the  other  it  is 
torpid  during  this  state,  except  just  before  its  last  meta- 
morphosis. Of  the  first  group  there  are  five  families,  the 
Dragon-flies,  Day-flies,  Stone-flies, White  Ants,  and  Book- 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


lice.  In  the  first  three  of  these  families,  the  insect  in  its 
larva  and  pupa  states  inhabits  the  water,  respiring  like  a 
fish,  having  peculiar  organs  for  this  purpose  at  the  sides 
of  the  abdomen  or  at  its  end,  while  in  the  form  of  its 
body  it  is  quite  like  the  insect  in  its  perfect  state. 

450.  Of  the  Dragon-flies,  the  most  conspicuous  and 
best-known  family,  there  are  about  two  hundred  ascer- 
tained species.  These  are  the  Swallows  of  the  Insect 


NET-WINGED   INSECTS. 


263 


tribe ;  for  they  catch  their  prey,  which  consists  of  Flies, 
Musquitoes,  Butterflies,  etc.,  on  the  wing.  They  do  this, 
however,  with  their  claws,  and  not,  like  the  Swallows,  with 
their  mouths.  That  they  may  readily  see  their  prey  as 
they  fly  about  so  swiftly  hi  search  of  it,  they  have  very 
large,  compound  eyes,  as  you  see  in  Fig.  207,  one  of  our 
common  Dragon-flies,  or  Darning-needles,  as  they  are 
often  called.  These  formidable-looking  insects  are  en- 
tirely-harmless, never  biting  or  stinging  when  we  catch 
them.  They  are  of  great  service  to  us  in  destroying  the 
Musquitoes,  of  which  they  devour  a  great  number.  Some 
species  are  beautifully  variegated  in  color. 

451.  The  eggs  of  these  insects  are  deposited  on  the 
leaves  of  aquatic  plants.  The  Iarva3  live  wholly  in  the 
water.  They  have  some  very  singular  peculiarities.  They 
have  a  kind  of  mask  with  which  they  can  cover  up  their 
mandibles  and  most  of  the  head.  But  this  mask  can  be 
unfolded  and  extended,  and,  having  on  its  end  a  pair  of 
claws,  it  is  used  as  an  instrument  for  seizing  their  prey, 
as  represented  at  A  in  Fig.  208.  At  B  the  insect  is  seen 
with  the  mask  folded  up.  You  see  here,  also,  water  is- 
suing from  the  end  of  the  larva's  body.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  it  propels  itself  through  the  water,  just  as  a  rocket 


Fig.  208. 


264  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

rises  by  the  stream  of  fire  at  its  end.  Another  purpose 
is  accomplished,  also,  by  this  operation.  The  breathing 
apparatus  is  in  this  quarter  of  the  body,  the  air  in  the 
water  being  there  introduced  to  the  blood  of  the  insect, 
just  as  it  is  introduced  to  the  blood  of  the  fish  in  its  gills. 
It  spends  nearly  a  year  in  the  water,  and  then  comes 
its  metamorphosis.  This,  Jaeger  says,  "may  be  ob- 
served almost  daily  from  the  month  of  Apri^  until  Octo- 
ber, but  occurs  principally  in  the  months  of  May  and 
June.  But  this  transformation  does  not  take  place  in  the 
water,  but  out  of  it ;  and  when  ready  for  their  metamor- 
phosis, the  larvae  climb  up  the  stem  of  some  water-plant, 
and  in  about  two  hours  after  are  capable  of  raising  them- 
selves up  by  their  wings  and  flying  away  in  the  air.  This 
whole  operation  may  be  witnessed  by  putting  the  grubs 
into  a  pail  of  water,  and  placing  in  it  some  sticks  or 
branches  upon  which  they  may  creep  up  and  prepare 
themselves  for  their  aerial  journeys." 

452.  The  Ephemerida3,  or  Day-flies,  are  so  called  from 
their  short  existence  in  the  imago  state,  which,  like  that 
of  some  flowers,  is  limited  to  a  single  day.    In  their  larva 
state,  however,  they  have  a  long  life  of  two  or  even  three 
years.     During  this  time  they  are  inhabitants  of  the  wa- 
ter, having  leaf-like  appendages  on  their  sides  as  their 
gills  or  respiratory  apparatus.     When  they  are  about  to 
change  to  the  imago  state,  wings  are  formed,  but  are  kept 
folded  up  till  they  are  ready  to  leave  the  water.     While 
these  are  forming  the  insect  is  said  to  be  in  the  pupa  or 
chrysalis  state,  and  yet  it  is  as  active  now  as  when  it  was 
a  larva.    The  escape  of  the  insect  into  the  air  is  so  quick- 
ly done,  that  it  seems  as  if  it  flew  directly  out  of  the  wa- 
ter.   It  casts  off  its  skin  as  readily  as  a  man  puts  off  a 
coat,  unfolds  its  wings,  and,  with  its  feet  resting  on  its 
cast-off  skin,  it  takes  its  flight. 

453.  These  insects  are  sometimes  produced  in  such 
multitudes  that  the  ground  is  covered  with  their  dead 
bodies,  and  they  are  carted  away  as  manure.     Professor 


NET-WINGED   INSECTS.  265 

Jaeger  saw  great  numbers  of  them  once  in  the  Raritan 
River,  near  Trenton ;  but  the  greatest  display  of  them 
that  he  ever  witnessed  was  in  the  River  Neva,  in  Russia. 
"  The  light  of  the  sun,"  he  says,  "  was  intercepted  as  in  a 
thick  fog,  so  much  so  that  nothing  could  be  distinguished 
at  the  distance  of  a  few  yards.  The  atmosphere  had 
something  the  appearance  it  presents  in  a  violent  snow- 
storm, and  thousands  of  Day-flies  fell  into  our  boat  and 
all  over  our  persons ;  while  the  fishes  in  the  water,  the 
birds  in  the  air,  and  the  domestic  fowls  upon  the  shore, 
were  every  where  feasting  upon  them."  He  farther  says, 
"  In  the  evening  these  flies  are  strongly  attracted  toward 
a  light,  perhaps  more  so  than  any  other  nocturnal  insect, 
and  it  is  very  amusing  to  see  the  crowds  of  them  that  fly 
through  an  open  window  and  dance  around  the  light, 
making  a  variety  of  turns,  and  circles,  and  waltzes.  They 
fly  so  close  together,  and  glisten  with  such  splendor,  that 
the  observer  sees  a  ribbon  of  gold  continually  revolving 
around  the  light,  or  imagines  a  celestial  globe  of  living 
circles  revolving  in  every  direction,  while  the  light  repre- 
sents the  central  sun." 

454.  The  Termites,  or  White  Ants,  are  the  only  family 
of  the  order  Neuroptera  that  live  in  communities  with  a 
regular  social  organization.  They  are,  with  some  few  ex- 
ceptions, confined  to  tropical  climates.  Next  to  the  Lo- 
custs, they  are  the  most  destructive  of  insects,  as  not  only 
food,  but  clothing,  trees,  fences,  and  even  houses,  are  de- 
voured by  them.  One  species  has  lately  done  great  dam- 
age in  France.  While  they  are  thus  destructive,  they 
are,  considering  their  size,  the  greatest  of  all  builders,  go- 
ing far  beyond  man  in  this  respect.  Their  habitations 
are  some  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  having  much  the  shape 
of  a  sugar-loaf.  They  are  built  of  clay,  which  these  in- 
sects in  some  way  render  as  hard  as  some  kinds  of  stone. 
There  are  various  apartments  and  winding  passages  in 
this  dwelling,  and  there  are  passages  dug  in  different  di- 
rections under  ground,  all  lined  with  the  hardened  clay. 

M 


266  NATUEAL   HISTORY. 

These  galleries  are  sometimes  carried  under  houses,  which 
the  Ants  enter,  and,  eating  out  all  of  the  inside  of  the 
timbers,  leave  them  only  as  mere  shells.  Sometimes  there 
are  many  of  these  curious  structures  in  the  same  neigh- 
borhood. Dr.  Adamson  says  that,  in  some  parts  near 
Senegal,  there  are  so  many  of  them  near  together  that 
they  appear  like  native  villages. 

455.  The  community  in  one  of  these  habitations  is  im- 
mense in  number,  consisting  of  laborers  and  soldiers  un- 
der a  king  and  queen.     These  last  are  the  only  ones  that 
come  to  the  imago  or  perfect  state.     The  laborers  seem 
to  be  larvae  stopped  in  their  development,  so  that  they 
never  acquire  wings.     The  soldiers,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  pupae.     The  queen  lays  all  the  eggs,  to  the  number, 
it  is  estimated,  of  forty  or  fifty  millions  in  a  year.     This 
she  does  in  a  royal  chamber  set  apart  for  this  purpose. 
The  laborers  take  the  eggs  as  fast  as  she  lays  them,  car- 
ry them  away  to  the  nurseries,  where  they  are  hatched, 
and  take  care  of  the  young.     They  also  do  all  the  build- 
ing and  repairing,  gather  all  the  stores,  and  perform,  all 
the  labor  of  any  kind  that  is  needed.     The  soldiers,  on 
the  contrary,  do  no  work,  but  stand  guard,  and  defend 
the  community,  in  which  they  show  great  bravery  and 
energy,  appearing  boldly  upon  the  outposts  when  any  en- 
emy appears,  while  all  the  laborers  retire  within.     The 
royal  chamber  is  near  the  centre  of  the  hillock,  and  is 
surrounded  by  apartments  which  are  occupied  by  what 
may  be  called  the  body-guard  of  the  queen,  some  of  the 
soldiers,  and  by  her  immediate  attendants,  some  of  the 
laborers.     She  can  never  leave  her  chamber,  for  no  open- 
ing from  it  is  large  enough  for  the  passage  of  her  body, 
which  is  enormously  enlarged  for  the  production  of  its 
multitudes  of  eggs.     The  minutiae  of  the  arrangement 
of  the  nurseries  and  the  various  apartments,  and  of  the 
economy  of  this  wonderful  community,  are  very  interest- 
ing, but  can  not  be  entered  upon  here. 

456.  The  Book-lice  form  a  small  family  nearly  allied 


NET-WINGED   INSECTS.  267 

to  the  Termites.  They  usually  live  in  damp,  dark  places, 
and  under  bark.  One  species,  destitute  of  wings,  is  oft- 
en found  in  old  books,  and  in  collections  of  dried  plants, 
insects,  etc. 

457.  In  the  second  division  of  the  Neuroptera  the 
metamorphosis  is  more  complete,  the  pupa  being  inact- 
ive.    The  most  singular  of  these  insects  is  the  Ant-lion. 
The  wingless  larva  has  a  curious  contrivance  for  secur- 
ing its  prey,  which  consists  of  ants  and  other  insects.    It 
digs  a  funnel-shaped  pit  in  sand,  about  thirty  inches  in 
diameter  and  twenty  inches  deep.     This  is  an  immense 
work  for  so  small  an  insect.     It  accomplishes  it  hi  this 
way.     It  first  traces  the  circle  which  is  to  be  the  outer 
edge  of  the  pit.     Then,  placing  itself  within  this  line,  it, 
with  one  of  its  legs  for  a  spade,  places  some  sand  in  a  heap 
on  its  head,  which  with  a  quick  jerk  it  throws  beyond  the 
circle  to  the  extent  of  some  inches.     It  does  this  around 
the  whole  circle ;  then  turning,  goes  round  again,  and  so 
on  until  the  whole  pit  is  dug.     It  now  conceals  itself  at 
the  bottom,  and  watches  for  some  insect  to  tumble  down 
into  the  pit.    If  the  insect  does  not  fall  to  the  bottom,  and 
endeavors  to  escape,  the  Ant-lion,  with  its  head  and  man- 
dibles, throws  over  it  a  quantity  of  sand,  and  thus  over- 
whelms its  victim.     Of  course,  such  a  struggle  disturbs 
the  evenness  of  the  pit,  and  the  breaches  are  immediate- 
ly repaired,  so  as  to  be  in  readiness  for  other  prey. 

458.  There  is  a  family  belonging  to  this  section,  called 
Hemerobiidae,  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  of  their  eyes, 
and  the  delicacy  and  varied  color  of  their  wings,  but  es- 
pecially for  the  singular  manner  in  which  they  dispose  of 
their  eggs.     They  deposit  them  usually  upon  plants,  at 
the  end  of  long  and  exceedingly  delicate  footstalks,  the 
base  of  which  is  firmly  attached  to  the  leaf.    These  foot- 
stalks are  composed  of  a  white  viscid  matter,  discharged 
at  the  time  of  laying  the  egg,  and  speedily  hardening  in 
the  air.     As  these  eggs  are  laid  in  clusters,  the  appear- 
ance is  that  of  small  clusters  of  fungi.     I  saw  some  once 


268 


NATUBAL   HISTOEY. 


upon  a  pane  of  glass,  and  here  the  breadth  and  firmness 
of  the  attachment  of  the  base  of  each  footstalk  were  very 
manifest,  seen  through  a  small  microscope. 

459.  There  is  an  aberrant  family  of  this  section  called 
Caddice-flies,  remarkable  for  the  covering  of  hair  with 
which  both  their  bodies  and  wings  are  beset.  The  hab- 
its of  their  larvae  are  very  interesting.  They  are  aquatic, 
and  live  in  cylindrical  cases  open  at  each  en'd.  To  these 
cases  they  attach  various  substances,  such  as  bits  of 
wood,  weeds,  pebbles,  shells,  etc.  In  Fig.  209  are  repre- 
sented several  of 
these  tubular  houses 
with  various  things 
attached  to  them. 
The  different  spe- 
cies, of  which  there 
are  many,  seem  to 
have  their  individ- 
ual preferences  in 
relation  to  the  sub- 
stances which  they 
employ ;  but  they 
readily  disregard 
these  preferences  when  there  is  a  lack  of  those  materials 
which  they  usually  prefer.  They  never  willingly  leave 
their  cases,  but  only  thrust  the  head  and  a  portion  of  the 
body  out  in  search  of  their  food.  When  about  to  pass 
into  the  torpid  pupa  state,  they  fasten  their  tubular  houses 
to  something  in  the  water,  and  then  close  the  two  ends 
with  a  kind  of  silken  grating  which  allows  the  water  to 
pass  freely  through  it.  When  they  are  to  assume  the 
imago  form,  they  make  a  hole  in  the  grating  with  a  pair 
of  hooked  jaws  which  they  now  have.  They  are  now 
good  swimmers,  using  chiefly  their  hind  legs  for  this  pur- 
pose. Coming  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  perhaps 
climbing  up  some  plant,  the  skin  of  the  swimmer  gapes 
open,  and  out  flies  an  insect  about  double  the  size  of  that 


Fig.  209.— Caddice-fly. 


MEMBRANE- WINGED   INSECTS.  269 

which  you  see  in  the  centre  of  Fig.  209.  Fishes  are  very 
fond  of  the  larvae  of  the  Caddice,  and  hence  the  necessity 
of  such  a  covering  as  they  make  for  themselves.  For  this 
reason,  also,  they  are  often  used  as  a  bait  by  the  angler. 

Questions. — In  what  are  the  Neuroptera  like  the  Coleoptera  and 
the  Orthoptera  ?  What  is  said  of  their  wings  ?  How  are  they  divided 
into  two  groups  ?  What  are  the  families  of  the  first  group  ?  What 
is  there  peculiar  in  three  of  these  families  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Drag- 
on-flies? What  of  their  eggs?  What  of  their  larvae?  What  of 
their  metamorphosis  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Day-flies  ?  Give  the  nar- 
ration of  Jaeger  in  regard  to  them.  What  is  said  of  the  ravages  of 
the  Termites  ?  What  of  their  habitations  ?  What  are  the  different 
classes  in  their  communities  ?  What  is  said  of  the  laborers  ?  Of  the 
soldiers  ?  Of  the  queen  and  her  cell  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Book- 
lice  ?  What  is  the  characteristic  of  the  second  group  of  the  Neurop- 
tera ?  What  is  said  of  the  Ant-lion  ?  What  is  said  of  a  family  of 
insects  that  deposit  their  eggs  on  stalks  ?  Give  the  account  of  the  lar- 
vae of  the  Caddice-flies.  Describe  their  pupa  state  and  theii  meta- 
morphosis. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

MEMBRANE-WINGED   INSECTS. 

460.  THE  wings  of  the  insects  of  the  order  Hymenop- 
tera  are  membranous,  like  those  of  the  Neuroptera,  but 
differ  from  them  in  not  having  a  fine  net- work  of  veins 
or  nerves.*  In  some  of  the  very  small  species  there  are 
almost  no  nerves.  The  name  membrane-winged  is  there- 
fore more  appropriate  than  vein-winged,  which  is  some- 
times given  to  them.  The  anterior  wings  of  the  Hyme- 
noptera  are  usually  much  larger  than  the  posterior,  and 
during  flight  the  wings  of  each  side  are  fastened  togeth- 
er by  minute  hooks  on  the  posterior  wing,  which  take 
hold  of  the  rear  margin  of  the  anterior  one.  The  females 

*  These  two  terms,  meaning  the  same  thing,  must  not  be  confound- 
ed with  the  same  terms  used  in  their  ordinary  sense.  In  insects  they 
are  applied  to  the  frame-work  of  the  wings. 


270  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

have  a  peculiar  prolongation  of  the  last  segment,  which 
in  one  division  of  the  order  is  an  ovipositor,  and  in  the 
other  is  a  sting.  The  Hymenoptera  are  farther  distin- 
guished by  a  remarkable  development  of  the  instinctive 
faculties,  especially  those  which  have  a  complicated  so- 
cial organization  of  their  communities,  as  the  Bees. 

461.  The  metamorphosis  in  this  order  is  complete,  the 
pupaB  being  quite  inactive,  and  the  larvae  are  more  im- 
perfect than  in  any  other  order.     In  most  of  the  species 
they  have  no  feet,  and  resemble  worms.     The  Iarva3  of 
some  of  them,  however,  are  like  caterpillars,  and  have 
eighteen  or  even  twenty  feet.     Jaeger  says  of  them  that 
they  live  "  in  clean  places,  such  as  cells  artificially  built 
of  wax,  pieces  of  wood,  leaves,  or  mortar ;  or  they  dwell 
in  wood,  in  holes  under  ground,  in  gall-apples,  or  oak- 
balls,  and  many  live  in  caterpillars ;  but  none  inhabit  car- 
rion, dunghills,  or  other  putrid  and  filthy  places." 

462.  None  of  the  Hymenoptera  are  very  large,  and 
some  are  exceedingly  small.     In  numbers  this  order  is 
inferior  only  to  the  Coleoptera,  and  it  has  been  estimated 
to  contain  one  fourth  of  the  whole  insect  world.   Though 
the  Hymenoptera  are  the  most  numerous  and  largest  in 
tropical  countries,  they  are  widely  distributed  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  earth.     They  are  mostly  great  workers, 
and  none  are  nocturnal,  but  all  do  their  work  in  the  day. 
Some  of  them  are  very  useful  to  man,  the  Bees  supplying 
him  with  honey  and  wax,  and  the  Gall-insects  with  a 
material  valuable  for  making  ink,  and   especially  for 
coloring. 

463.  We  divide  the  order  into  two  groups:  1.  The 
Terebrantia,  or  Borers,  whose  females  have  ovipositors ; 
2.  The  Aculeata,  or  Stingers,  in  which  the  females  have 
a  sting,  or  piercer,  connected  with  a  reservoir  of  poison. 
I  will  notice  but  a  few  families  in  each  group. 

464.  The  family  of  Gall-flies  is  one  of  the  most  prom- 
inent among  those  of  the  first  group.     These  insects, 
with  their  ovipositors,  make  slits  in  various  parts  of 


MEMBKANE-  WINGED    INSECTS.  271 

plants  and  trees,  depositing  therein  their  eggs.  They 
moisten  these  cuts  also  with  an  irritating  fluid,  which 
causes  the  growth  of  the  tumors  called  galls.  When 
the  eggs  are  hatched,  the  larvaB  live  on  the  interior  of 
these  tumors,  just  as  the  larvae  of  the  Nut-weevil,  §  435, 
live  on  the  nuts  in  which  they  are  hatched.  It  is  re- 
markable that  the  same  tree  should  produce  on  its  dif- 
ferent parts  galls  of  various  forms  and  degrees  of  hard- 
ness, according  to  the  species  by  which  the  eggs  are 
deposited.  The  hardest  gah1  is  the  common  gall-nut  of 
commerce,  so  much  used  in  making  ink,  and  in  the  proc- 
ess of  dying  black.  This  is  the  product  of  an  oak  grow- 
ing in  the  Levant.  It  has  been  found  that  the  famous 
"  Apples  of  Sodom"  are  galls  of  a  different  consistence 
on  the  same  oak,  occasioned  by  another  species  of  Cy- 
nips,  or  Gall-fly.  While  the  oak  apples,  so  familiar  to 
us,  appear  on  the  twigs  of  the  oak,  there  are  also  differ- 

ent kinds  of  galls  pro- 
duced on  the  leaves, 
the  catkins  or  pendent 
flowers,  and  even  on 
the  root.  Those  on 
the  root  are  large  and 
woody,  and  eleven 
hundred  larvae  have 
been  found  in  a  single 
one  of  them.  While 
the  oak  seems  to  be  a 
great  favorite  of  the 
Gall-flies,  they  infest 
also  some  other  trees 
and  shrubs.  The  gall 
of  the  wild  rose,  Fig. 
210,  is  very  beautiful, 


negated  in  color,  and 
covered  over  with  bristles.    When  cut  open  we  find  in 


272  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

it  little  apartments  occu- 
pied by  the  larvae,  as  you 
see  in  the  figure.  In  Fig. 
211  you  have  one  of  the 

Fig.  211 — Magnified  Bristle  of  the  Gall,  bristles  magnified. 

465.  The  insects  of  the  Ichneumon  family  have  long, 
slender  bodies,  long  ovipositors,  and  long  antennae,  which 
are  in  a  continual  trembling  motion.  The  ovipositor  of 
some  species  is  exceedingly  long,  as  in  Fig.  212  (on  the 
opposite  page).  The  two  bristles  accompanying  the  ovi- 
positor can  be  brought  together  by  the  animal  so  as  to 
make  a  complete  sheath  for  it.  These  insects  deposit 
their  eggs  in  the  bodies  of  the  larvae  of  other  insects,  and 
the  larvae  hatched  from  them  live  on  these  bodies  just  as 
the  gall  insects  live  on  the  galls  in  which  they  are  hatch- 
ed. Those  which  have  long  ovipositors  pierce  with  them 
the  bark  of  trees  or  decayed  wood,  in  order  to  find  larvae 
in  which  they  can  deposit  their  eggs.  Those  which  have 
shorter  ovipositors  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  bodies  of 
caterpillars  which  they  find  crawling  about.  We  some- 
times see  a  caterpillar  with  a  considerable  number  of 
little  barrel-shaped  silken  bodies  standing  out  upon  its 
skin.  These  are  the  cocoons  of  the  Ichneumon  larvae, 
which,  after  living  for  some  time  in  the  fat  of  the  cater- 
pillar, just  under  its  skin,  have  come  out  and  have  spun 
their  cocoons,  that  they  might  go  into  the  pupa  state. 
The  Ichneumon  family  is  very  numerous.  Carpenter 
states  that  there  are  probably  over  three  thousand  spe- 
cies in  Europe  alone. 

466.  The  Chrysididae,  or  Ruby-tailed  Flies,  are  a  small 
group,  adorned  with  such  brilliant  metallic  tints  that  they 
have  been  said  to  be  the  Humming-birds  of  the  insect 
world.  The  females  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  nest  of 
wild  Bees  and  other  Hymenoptera,  and  thus  the  larvae 
eat  the  food  designed  by  these  latter  for  their  own  off- 
spring. Here  is  a  striking  analogy  to  the  habit  of  the 
English  Cuckoo,  alluded  to  in  §  268. 


jftiSMBRANE-WINGED   INSECTS.  273 


Fig.  212 — Long-tailed  Ichneumon  Fly. 

M2 


274  NATURAL   HISTOEY. 

467.  The  family  of  Sawflies  is  quite  an  extensive  aber- 
rant family.     They  are  so  called  from  a  curious  double 
saw  in  the  ovipositor,  with  which  they  make  holes  in  the 
branches  and  other  parts  of  trees  for  the  deposit  of  their 
eggs.   Carpenter  mentions  one  species  in  England,  whose 
larvae  are  very  destructive  to  turnips,  devastating  a  whole 
field  in  a  few  days  by  devouring  the  soft  tissue  of  the 
leaves ;  and  he  states  that  the  most  effectual  remedy  has 
been  found  to  be  the  introduction  of  ducks  into  the  fields, 
as  they  very  greedily  devour  the  larvae. 

468.  Of  the  Aculeate  division  of  the  Hymenoptera  we 
make  two  subdivisions — the  Predaceous,  or  those  which 
live  on  prey,  and  the   Melliferous,  or  honey-collecting 
stingers. 

469.  There  is  one  group  of  the  Predaceous  division, 
including  several  families,  which  may  be  called,  from  their 
peculiar  habits,  diggers.     They  are  known  commonly  as 
Sand  and  Wood  Wasps.     They  are  solitary — that  is,  do 
not  live  hi  communities.     They  therefore  are  ail  males 
and  females,  and  have  no  neuters  or  workers.     The  fe- 
males commonly  dig  out  cells  in  the  ground,  or  in  posts 
and  timbers.     In  these  they  deposit  with  their  eggs  in- 
sects which  they  have  killed,  so  that  the  larvae,  when 
hatched,  may  have  something  to  live  upon.     Sometimes 
the  insects  thus  deposited  are  only  stung  sufficiently  to 
render  them  powerless.     Decomposition  is  thus  prevent- 
ed, and  the  larvae,  when  they  come  forth  from  the  eggs, 
kill  the  insects  and  devour  them.     The  perfect  insects 
are  active  in  their  habits,  flying  about  and  running  over 
sand-banks  with  their  wings  in  constant  motion.     They 
are  fond  of  the  nectar  of  flowers,  a  very  different  food 
from  that  which  they  devour  in  the  greedy  larva  state. 
Those  which  are  sand-burrowers  have  strong  brushes  on 
their  legs  with  which  they  excavate  their  nests,  while 
the  wood-burrowers  have  powerful  mandibles  with  tooth- 
like  projections,  which  convert  the  wood  into  sawdust 
in  making  the  burrow. 


MEMBRANE- WINGED   INSECTS.  275 

470.  The  Mud- wasp,  Fig.  213,  is  one  of  the  sand-bur- 

rowers.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  ac- 
count given  of  it 
by  Jaeger.  "This 
insect  is  more  than 
an  inch  long,  and 
of  a  dark  blue- 
purple  color.  It 
makes  its  abode 
in  the  loose,  sandy 
ground,  and  when 
digging  its  hole  re- 
Fig.  2i3.-The  Mud-wasp.  gembles  a  dog  dig- 
ging after  mice,  throwing  the  earth  under  it  toward  its 
hind  body  with  its  fore  feet.  If  the  pile  of  sand  be- 
comes too  high  or  troublesome,  it  places  itself  upon  it, 
and  throws  the  earth  behind  it  with  great  force  until  it 
is  leveled.  As  soon  as  its  subterranean  abode  is  pre- 
pared, it  seizes  a  large  Spider,  or  a  caterpillar,  or  some 
other  insect,  stings  it  in  the  neck,  and  then  carries  it  into 
its  hole.  It  is  curious  to  see  one  of  these  Wasps  take 
hold  of  a  Cockroach,  seizing  it  by  one  of  its  long  anten- 
na, and  continually  walking  backward,  compelling  the 
Cockroach  to  follow,  notwithstanding  its  great  reluctance 
and  constant  opposition,  until  both  have  arrived  at  the 
hole,  where  the  Wasp  kills  it  by  a  sting  in  the  neck,  then 
tears  into  pieces,  and  carries  it  into  her  subterranean 
dwelling  as  food  for  her  offspring." 

471.  The  family  of  Vespida3,  or  true  Wasps,  is  distin- 
guished from  the  other  Hymenoptera  by  the  folding  of 
the  wings  when  at  rest  throughout  their  entire  length. 
They  are  generally  not  solitary,  but  social,  the  communi- 
ties, however,  being  small.     The  neuters  are  not,  like  the 
neuters   of  the  Ant  tribe,  destitute  of  wings.     Those 
Wasps  which  are  solitary  have  no  neuters,  and  their  hab- 
its are  like  the  diggers  just  noticed.     There  are  many 


276 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


species  of  the  Social  Wasps,  the  best  known  of  which,  as 
the  common  Wasp,  build  their  nests  of  a  stout  brown 
paper,  which  they  manufacture  from  bits  of  wood  and 
bark.  Like  the  paper-maker  among  men,  they  reduce 
their  material  to  a  pulp,  and  then  spread  jto  out  thinly, 
which,  drying  speedily,  becomes  firm  paper.  In  Fig. 
214  you  see  the  arrangement  of  the  nest  of  the  Social 


Fig.  214. 

Wasps.  Each  floor  of  cells  hangs  from  the  floor  above 
it  by  rods.  At  a  a  is  the  outer  wall,  made  of  many  lay- 
ers of  brown  paper ;  at  b  and  c  are  five  terraces  of  cells 
for  the  neuter  Wasps ;  and  at  d  and  e  are 
three  rows  of  larger  cells  for  the  males 
and  females.  In  Fig.  215  is  a  representa- 
tion of  a  portion  of  one  of  these  terraces, 
with  its  rod. 

472.  The  family  Fonnicidse,  or  Ants, 
Fig.  215.         are  placed  in  a  different  order  from  the 


MEMBRANE-WINGED   INSECTS.  277 

White  Ants,  §  453,  on  account  of  the  difference  in  the 
wings,  those  of  the  latter  having  the  characteristic  net- 
work of  the  Neuroptera.  They  are  distinguished  from 
all  the  other  families  of  the  Hymenoptera  by  their  re- 
siding under  ground  in  large  societies,  some  of  them 
raising  the  earth  up  in  mounds  in  constructing  their 
habitations.  The  males  and  females,  which  alone  are 
winged,  constitute  but  a  small  portion  of  each  commu- 
nity, most  of  it  consisting  of  wingless  neuters  or  la- 
borers. The  different  parts  of  the  nest  are  very  curi- 
ously and  regularly  arranged.  The  males  and  females 
leave  the  nest  as  soon  as  they  have  wings.  The  males 
die,  and  of  the  females  some  return  and  deposit  their 
eggs  in  their  original  nest,  while  others  go  to  a  distance 
and  found  other  colonies.  When  they  begin  to  lay 
their  eggs,  as  their  destiny  is  now  to  stay  in  one  place, 
they  have  no  farther  need  of  wings,  and  therefore  strip 
off  themselves  the  useless  encumbrances,  or  allow  them 
to  be  stripped  off  by  the  neuters.  These  last  not  only 
construct  the  nest,  but  take  care  of  the  eggs,  and  also  of 
the  grubs  that^are  hatched  from  them,  feeding  them,  and 
carrying  them  on  clear  warm  days  to  the  outer  surface 
of  the  nest,  and  taking  them  back  again  when  night  ap- 
proaches, or  before  that  if  there  be  a  threatening  of  bad 
weather.  Ants  are  very  fond  of  saccharine  matter,  and 
accordingly  are  apt  to  find  out  where  it  is.  They  are 
also  fond  of  some  fruits.  I  have  been  amused  to  see 
how  any  pear  in  my  garden,  that  chances,  in  falling,  to 
have  a  breach  made  in  the  skin,  is  at  once  beset  with 
Ants,  who  quite  rapidly  eat  out  the  inside. 

473.  In  most  cases  a  community  of  Ants  consists  only 
of  three  kinds  of  individuals — males,  females,  and  neut- 
ers. But  in  some  of  the  species  some  of  the  neuters  are 
larger  than  the  rest,  and  differently  shaped,  and  appear 
to  be  the  soldiers  of  the  community,  whose  duties  are 
the  same  with  those  of  the  soldiers  among  the  Termites 
(§  455).  There  are  wars,  sometimes,  between  different 


278  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

communities  among  the  Ants  as  well  as  among  men,  and 
some  interesting  descriptions  have  been  given  of  their 
battles.  But  the  most  remarkable  fact  in  the  history  of 
Ants  is  the  propensity  of  certain  species  to  kidnap  the 
workers  of  other  species  and  train  them  as  their  slaves. 
The  kidnappers  are  always  red  or  pale  colored,  while 
those  which  are  made  slaves  are  black.  The  slaves  are 
not  captured  after  they  have  become  Ants,  but  when 
they  are  in  the  pupa  state.  The  ant-heap  is  attacked  by 
the  marauders  when  the  cells  are  filled  with  pupae,  and 
at  no  other  time ;  a  sanguinary  battle  is  the  consequence ; 
and  the  Red  Ants,  being  uniformly  victorious,  carry  off 
the  pupae  to  their  own  nest.  Here  the  red  workers  take 
the  same  care  of  these  pupae  as  they  do  of  those  belong- 
ing to  their  own  community,  and  when  the  black  work- 
ers come  out  from  the  pupa-cocoons,  they  very  readily 
serve  their  captors. 

474.  The  insects  of  the  Melliferous  or  honey-collecting 
division  of  the  Aculeata  are  distinguished  by  a  peculiar 
conformation  of  the  hind  feet.     The  first  joint  has  the 
shape  of  a  square  plate,  on  the  inside  o^ which  are  hol- 
lows surrounded  by  brush-like  tufts.     In  these  baskets, 
as  they  may  be  called,  the  pollen  of  flowers  is  collected 
and  carried  to  the  nest.     The  insects  of  this  division  are 
all  called  Bees.     Like  the  Wasps,  they  have  two  groups, 
the  Solitary  and  the  Social.     Of  the  Solitary  Bees,  some 
form  burrows  in  the  ground;  others  build  several  cells 
together,  covering  them  with  sand  or  small  gravel  united 
by  their  viscid  saliva,  and  hence  are  called  Mason  Bees ; 
others  excavate  cells  in  dead  wood,  and  are  called  Car- 
penter Bees ;  and  others  still,  the  Upholsterer  Bees,  con- 
struct, their  nests  from  leaves,  which  they  cut  into  the 
requisite  shapes  with  great  dexterity. 

475.  Of  the  Social  Bees  there  are  two  principal  groups 
— the  Bombi  or  Humble  Bees,  and  the  Hive  Bees.     The 
Humble  Bees,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  build 
their  nests  either  under  ground,  or  on  the  surface  under 


MEMBRANE-WINGED   INSECTS. 


279 


stones  and  other  things.  Their  communities  consist  of 
from  fifty  to  three  hundred  Bees.  They  contain  three 
kinds  of  individuals  —  males,  females,  and  neuters,  of 
which  the  females  alone  live  through  the  whiter.  There 
is  a  special  provision  for  their  preservation.  They  have 
a  chamber  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  nest,  and  this  is 
lined  with  grass  and  moss,  so  that  they  may  sleep  there 
through  the  winter  secure  against  the  cold. 

476.  In  the  Hive  Bees,  we  see  the  instincts  in  con- 
struction and  social  organization  exhibited  in  the  most 
remarkable  manner.  A  community  of  Hive  Bees  con- 
tains but  a  single  perfect  female,  termed  the  Queen ;  sev- 
eral hundred  males,  called  Drones ;  and  about  twenty 
thousand  neuters,  or  Workers.  In  Fig.  216  you  see  the 
three  kinds  of  Bees,  the  upper  one  being  the  Queen,  a 
drone  on  the  right,  and  a  worker  on  the  left.  At  the 


Fig.  216.— Hive  Bees. 

end  of  every  summer,  the  Drones,  which  have  no  stings 
to  defend  themselves,  are  all  stung  to  death  by  the  Work- 
ers. The  cells  where  the  eggs  are  deposited  are  in  the 
central  part  of  each  comb,  this  being,  of  course,  the  warm- 
est part  of  it.  The  Drones  being  larger  than  the  Work- 
ers, those  cells  in  which  the  eggs  are  to  produce  Drones 


280  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

are  made  larger  than  the  rest.  Those  that  contain  eggs 
from  which  Queens  are  to  come  are  made  much  larger 
than  any  others,  and  of  a  different  shape,  as  seen  in  Fig. 
217.  If  left  to  themselves,  the  Bees 
select  the  hollow  of  an  old  tree  as 
the  place  to  build  their  comb,  but 
they  readily  go  into  the  hives  pro- 
vided for  them  by  man.  The  comb 
3U8'  is  made  of  wax,  which  is  secreted 
from  the  body  of  the  Bee,  and  appears  in  scales  between 
the  segments.  This,  with  their  mandibles,  they  mould, 
and  apply  it  in  the  construction  of  the  comb.  The  first 
swarm  from  a  hive  is  led  by  the  old  Queen.  Then  there 
are  successive  swarms  led  by  the  young  Queens.  When 
the  hive  is  sufficiently  relieved  of  its  surplus  population, 
the  Queens  that  remain  fight  till  all  are  killed  but  one, 
and  she  takes  possession  of  the  throne.  When  the  Bees 
lose  their  Queen,  they,  by  a  curious  process,  fill  the  va- 
cant throne.  They  select  some  one  of  the  larvae  which 
are  to  be  Workers,  and,  enlarging  its  cell  by  the  removal 
of  the  walls  of  the  neighboring  cells,  thus  make  for  it  a 
suitably  large  royal  apartment.  They  then  feed  it  with 
the  royal  jelly,  which  is  the  exclusive  food  of  the  Queen- 
larvae,  and,  in  due  time,  this  larva,  originally  destined  to 
be  a  worker,  comes  forth  a  queen. 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  the  wings  of  the  Hymenoptera  ?  What 
peculiarity  is  there  in  the  females  ?  What  is  said  of  the  instinct  of 
the  Hymenoptera  ?  What  is  said  of  their  metamorphosis  ?  What 
of  their  larvae  ?  What  is  said  of  the  size  of  the  Hymenoptera?  Of 
their  number?  Of  their  habits?  Of  their  usefulness  to  man? 
What  are  the  two  groups  of  this  order  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Gall- 
flies ?  What  of  the  Oak-galls  ?  What  of  the  gall  of  the  wild  rose  ? 
What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Ichneumon  family  ?  What  is  stated 
of  those  which  have  short  ovipositors  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Chrysi- 
didse  ?  What  of  the  Saw-flies  ?  What  are  the  families  of  the  acu- 
leate group  of  the  Hymenoptera?  What  is  said  of  the  Sand  and 
Wood  Wasps  ?  What  of  the  Mud-wasp  ?  What  of  the  Vespidae  ? 
What  is  the  arrangement  of  the  nest  of  the  social  Wasp  ?  Describe 
the  Ant  communities.  What  is  said  of  the  neuters  in  some  species  ? 


SCALE- WINGED   INSECTS.  281 

What  of  the  kidnapping  Ants  ?  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Melliferous  division  of  the  Aculeata  ?  What  is  said  of  the  solitary 
Bees?  What  of  the  social  Bees?  What  of  the  hive  Bees?  What 
of  their  swarming  ? 


CHAPTER  XXVIH. 

SCALE-WINGED    INSECTS. 

4Y7.  THE  insects  of  the  order  Lepidoptera,  or  Scale- 
winged  Insects,  are  characterized  by  the  downy  cover- 
ing of  the  wings,  which  is  made  up  of  a  multitude  of 
feather-scales.  The  number  of  these  scales  on  the  wings 
of  the  Silkworm  Moth  has  been  estimated  at  400,000. 
The  silvery  dust  that  you  have  on  your  fingers  when 
you  touch  a  common  Miller  is  a  multitude  of  these 
scales.  Each  particle  of  that  dust  under  the  microscope 
appears  a  scale,  with  regular  lines  extending  from  its 
stem  to  its  edge  at  the  other  end.  When  this  scaly 
covering  is  rubbed  off  from  the  wing  of  one  of  these  bi- 
sects, the  bare  membrane  which  is  left  is  seen  to  corre- 
spond with  that  of  the  wings  of  other  insects.  In  some 
cases  the  scales  are  arranged  with  perfect  regularity, 
§398.  The  shapes  of  them  vary  much  in  the  different 
species,  and  there  is  often  quite  a  variety  in  the  same 
species  in  different  portions  of  the  wing,  the  long  ones 
making  the  fringe  at  the  edge.  That  you  may  have  a 
correct  idea  of  their  general  shape,  I  give,  in  Fig.  218, 


Fig.  218.— Feather  Scales  of  the  Goat-moth. 


282  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  feather-scales  of  the  Goat-moth.  The  delicate  lines 
on  them  are  not  represented.  It  is  these  scales  various- 
ly colored  that  give  such  beauty  to  many  of  the  insects 
of  this  order.  Some  of  the  Butterflies  are  especially 
brilliant. 

478.  The  insects  of  the  orders  already  noticed  are 
mandibulate,  §  392.     This  order,  and  the  others  which 
remain  to  be  noticed,, are  haustellate,  §  393.     The  Lepi- 
doptera  stand  at  the  head  of  the  haustellate  group,  as 
the  Coleoptera,  or  Beetles,  stand  at  the  head  of  the  Man- 
dibulata.     The  haustellum,  or  sucker,  by  which  the  in- 
sect drinks  up  the  nectar  of  the  flowers,  is  composed  of 
two  long  filaments,  so  shaped  that,  by  joining  them  to- 
gether, they  make  a  tube.     You  can  see  how  accurately 
they  must  be  made  in  order  to  do  this. 

479.  The  larvae  of  the  Lepidoptera  are  caterpillars. 
They  have  three  pairs  of  legs  on  the  first  three  segments 
of  the  body ;  then  they  have  some  appendages  called 
pro-legs,  which  are  thick,  short,  fleshy  tubercles,  with 
minute  hooks  around  the  edge  of  the  under  surface  of 
them :  there  are  usually  five  pairs  of  these,  four  of  them 
in  rear  of  the  true  legs,  and  another  pair  on  the  last  seg- 
ment of  the  body.     In  Fig.  219  are  represented  a  leg 


Fig.  219. — Leg  and  Pro-leg  of  a  Caterpillar,  greatly  magnified. 

and  a  pro-leg,  greatly  magnified.  The  curved  claws  on 
the  six  legs  of  the  caterpillars  enable  them  to  climb  up 
readily  on  the  threads  from  which  they  so  often  hang, 
and  the  pro-legs  are  of  great  assistance  to  them  in  walk- 


SCALE-WINGED   INSECTS.  283 

ing  and  in  adhering  to  branches  of  trees,  or  to  any  other 
solid  substance.  Besides  the  little  hooks  on  the  pro-leg, 
the  bottom  of  its  foot  is  so  arranged  as  to  act  as  a  sucker. 
The  mode  of  walking  or  crawling  is  different  in  different 
caterpillars.  Those  which  have  pro-legs  on  nearly  all 
the  segments  crawl  on  all  the  feet  at  once,  moving  the 
body  straight  along.  Those  which,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  only  a  few  pro-legs,  manage  in  this  way :  making 
firm  hold  with  their  six  clawed  legs,  they  bring  the  pro- 
legs,  which  are  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  body,  close 
up  in  rear  of  the  true  legs,  thus  arching  the  intermediate 
segments  upward ;  and  now,  holding  on  with  their  pro- 
legs,  they  thrust  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  forward 
its  full  length.  By  a  repetition  of  these  movements  they 
make  a  slow  and  measured  progress.  From  this  mode 
of  walking  such  caterpillars  are  caUed  loopers,  or  geom- 
eters, or  measure-worms.  Some  caterpillars  will  stand 
for  hours  on  the  pro-legs  in  the  rear  part  of  the  body, 
with  the  forward  part  of  the  body  extending  upward  at 
right  angles  to  this  rear  part. 

480.  The  food  of  caterpillars  is,  with  few  exceptions, 
vegetable.     Some  feed  exclusively  on  one  kind  of  plant, 
as  the  Silkworm  on  the  mulberry ;  some  feed  on  a  cer- 
tain class  of  plants ;  and  others  on  almost  any  kind  that 
they  happen  to  find.     Their  hours  of  eating  differ,  some 
eating  only  in  the  morning  and  evening,  some  all  day, 
and  others  only  at  night.     All  eat  a  great  deal — some 
more  than  twice  their  weight  in  twenty-four  hours.     If 
all  animals  should  do  this,  the  eatables  in  the  world  would 
soon  be  devoured.    The  perfect  insects  eat  but  little,  for 
they  do  not  grow  any  larger  than  they  were  when  they 
first  emerged  from  the  pupa  state.     The  larvae,  on  the 
other  hand,  as  they  eat  much,  grow  much  also. 

481.  Caterpillars  are  of  great  service  in  furnishing  a 
very  large  proportion  of  the  food  of  birds.    "  It  is  ascer- 
tained," says  Jaeger,  "  that  a  single  robin  or  woodpecker, 
and  many  others  of  the  warblers,  carry  every  day  about 


284  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

fifty  grubs  or  caterpillars  to  their  nests  as  food  for  them- 
selves and  their  young.  Now,  if  there  were  only  one 
million  of  these  birds,  of  which  each  one  devours  6000 
caterpillars  in  the  months  of  April,  May,  June,  and  July 
(by  no  means  a  large  computation),  the  number  of  cat- 
erpillars and  grubs  thus  destroyed  will  amount  to 
6,000,000,000  annually." 

482.  Caterpillars  are  all  spinners,  the  thread  coming 
from  a  fleshy  point  in  the  under  lip.     Besides  the  em- 
ployment of  this  spinning  machine  in  making  the  cocoon 
for  the  pupa  state,  many  of  them  also  use  it  as  a  means 
of  escape  from  their  enemies,  letting  themselves  sudden- 
ly down  by  the  thread  they  spin  to  a  place  of  safety.    If 
a  bird  espies  one  in  a  rolled-up  leaf,  he  may  not  secure  it, 
for,  as  he  puts  in  his  bill  at  one  end,  the  caterpillar  may 
escape  at  the  other,  dropping  itself  down  quickly  as  far 
as  it  pleases. 

483.  Most  of  the  caterpillars  are  solitary  in  their  hab- 
its, but  some  live  in  societies.     This  is  the  case  with  the 
Tent-caterpillars.     These  spin  large  tents  of  silk  in  the 
branches  of  trees,  which  are  water-proof,  although  they 
are  so  slight  in  their  appearance.     They  increase  very 
fast,  and,  if  let  alone,  colonies  from  the  original  commu- 
nity will  spread  their  web-like  tents  hi  all  parts  of  the 
tree. 

484.  Of  the  caterpillars  called  Spanworms  there  are 
many  species.    The  most  conspicuous  is  what  is  common- 
ly called  the  Canker-worm,  so  destructive  to  many  fruit 
and  shade  trees  from  devouring  their  leaves.    These  cat- 
erpillars finish  their  work  of  devastation  in  June,  when 
they  are  only  four  weeks  old,  and  descend  by  their  silk- 
en cords  to  the  ground,  which  they  enter  to  the  depth  of 
several  inches.     Here  they  pass  into  the  pupa  state.    In 
the  autumn  they  issue  from  the  ground  in  the  imago 
state.     The  female  is  wingless,  and  therefore  must  climb 
up  the  trunk  of  the  tree  to  lay  her  eggs  on  the  branches, 
which  she  does  in  clusters  of  a  hundred  or  more.    There 


SCALE-WINGED   INSECTS.  285 

they  remain  till  spring,  when  the  caterpillars  are  hatched 
from  them.  Various  expedients  have  been  de.vised  for 
destroying  the  females  as  they  go  up  the  trees  to  lay 
their  eggs.  The  most  effectual  one  is  that  adopted  so 
extensively  in  New  Haven  to  save  its  noble  elms.  It  is 
a  leaden  trough  placed  around  the  trunk  of  the  tree  in 
which  there  is  some  kind  of  oil. 

485.  Professor  Jaeger  very  playfully  says  of  the  habits 
of  the  perfect  insects  of  this  order  that,  "  in  comparison 
with  the  other  orders  of  insects,  they  are  well  entitled  to 
the  rank  of  nobility,  for  among  them  we  find  no  impu- 
dent beggars  and  spongers,  as  among  the  Flies ;  no  par- 
asites, as  among  the  wingless  insects  ;  no  working-class, 
as  among  the  Hymenopterous  insects — Bees, Wasps,  and 
Ants ;  no  musicians,  as  among  the  families  of  Crickets, 
Grasshoppers,  Katydids,  and  Cicadas ;  but  all  of  them 
are  aristocratic  idlers,  who,  clothed  with  silver,  gold,  and 
purple,  and  ornamented  with  ever-varying  splendor,  have 
naught  to  do  but  seek  their  own  pleasure,  and  charm 
away  their  brief  existence,  fluttering  from  bough  to 
bough,  and  satiating  themselves  with  the  sweet  nectar 
of  flowers." 

486.  We  divide  the  Lepidoptera  into  two  sections — 
the  Butterflies  and  the  Moths.     The  Butterflies  may  usu- 
ally be  distinguished  by  the  vertical  position  of  their 
wings  when  they  are  at  rest,  and  by  their  having  the  an- 
tennae slender,  and  club-shaped  at  the  end.     They  are 
diurnal  in  their  habits,  and  they  are  therefore  brilliant, 
generally,  in  their  colors.     The  under  side  of  the  wings 
is  as  beautiful  as  the  upper.     The  pupa3  of  many  of  this 
group  have  golden  spots,  from  which  the  term  chrysalis 
was  suggested,  and  also  aurelia,  which  is  a  Latin  word 
of  the  same  meaning  with  the  former,  which  is  Greek. 
These  terms  ought  strictly  to  be  applied  only  to  the  pupaB 
of  Butterflies,  but  they  have  come  to  be  applied  to  pupa3 
of  all  kinds. 

487.  The  Butterflies  are  divided  into  five  families,  ac- 


286 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


cording  to  the  shape  of  the  wing.  One  of  these  families, 
styled  by  Linnaeus  Knights  or  Chevaliers,  generally  have 
a  long,  swallow-like  tail  at  the  extremity  of  the  hind 
wings,  as  seen  in  the  Troilus,  Fig.  220.  This  Butterfly 


Fig.  220.— The  Troilus. 

has  black  wings  spotted  with  yellow.  Its  caterpillar  is 
green,  with  a  yellow  stripe  on  each  side,  and  a  row  of 
blue  dots,  while  the  under  side  of  its  body  and  its  feet 
are  reddish.  In  this  country  it  is  more  frequently  seen 
in  the  Southern  than  in  the  Northern  States.  The  But- 
terfly called  Berenice,  Fig.  221,  belongs  to  the  family 
of  Round-winged  Butterflies.  It  was  named  after  the 
wife  of  Antiochus,  King  of  Syria,  said  to  be  the  loveliest 
woman  of  her  age.  It  is  quite  common  with  us.  It  has 
dark-red  wings  with  black  veins,  and  a  black  border  with 
two  rows  of  white  dots.  The  caterpillar  is  of  a  light  vi- 
olet color,  with  brown,  red,  and  yellow  lines. 

488.  The  second  section  of  the  Lepidoptera,  the  Moths, 


SCALE-WINGED   INSECTS.  287 


Fig.  221.— The  Berenice. 

we  divide  into  two  groups,  the  Crepuscularia  ( Crepus- 
cula,  twilight),  Twilight-fliers,  or  Hawk  Moths,  and  the 
Nocturna,  or  True  Moths.  LinnaBus  called  the  Hawk 
Moths  Sphinxes,  from  the  peculiar  attitude,  resembling 
the  sculptured  Sphinx,  so  often  assumed  by  the  cater- 
pillars of  these  Moths.  Most  of  the  species  in  this  genus 
are  Twilight-fliers,  but  not  all ;  for  some  fly  about  in 
bright  sunlight,  sucking  the  nectar  of  flowers  with  their 
long  trunks.  These  species  are  more  brilliantly  colored 
than  the  common  species,  which  have  a  dull  brownish- 
gray  aspect,  like  the  owls,  whose  habits  are  similar.  The 
Iarva3  of  the  Hawk  Moths,  on  going  into  the  pupa  state, 
either  inclose  themselves  in  cocoons,  or  bury  themselves 
in  the  ground.  The  perfect  insects  make  a  loud  hum- 
ming sound  in  their  flight.  The  Humming-bird  Moth  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  diurnal  species,  and  is 
remarkable  for  the  loudness  of  the  humming  sound  which 
it  makes  while  feeding  poised  on  its  wings. 

489.  The  Nocturna,  or  True  Maths,  are  by  far  the  most 
extensive  group  of  the  order.  They  are  much  like  most 
of  the  Sphinxes,  but  their  antennae  are  very  different,  be- 
ing broad  at  the  base,  and  tapering  to  a  point  at  the  end. 
The  Cecropia,  Fig.  186,  is  one  of  the  most  splendid  of 
these  Moths.  The  Silkworm  Moth  belongs  to  this  group ; 
so  do  all  that  variety  of  Moths,  or  Millers,  that  fly  about 


288 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


our  lights  in  a  summer's  evening.  I  have  said  so  much  of 
these  insects  in  Chapter  XXIII.,  that  of  the  many  families 
of  them  I  will  notice  here  but  two.  The  Clothes  Moths 
deposit  their  eggs  in  woolen  stuffs,  furs,  feathers,  etc. 
Their  larvae  live  on  these  articles.  They  also  construct 
for  themselves  a  tubular  case  from  the  same  materials. 
In  these  they  live,  as  the  larvae  of  the  Caddice-flies,  §  459, 
do  in  their  cases.  With  the  growth  of  their  bodies  they 
enlarge  these  tubes  by  weaving  an  addition  on  to  the 
end,  and  also  by  slitting  it  open  and  inserting  a  piece 
longitudinally.  Sometimes  these  cases  are  of  divers  col- 
ors, from  the  use  of  differently-colored  materials.  When 
they  are  about  to  go  into  the  pupa  state,  these  insects 
close  up  the  two  ends  of  the  case. 

490.  There  is  a  small 
Moth,  called  the  Rusty 
Vapor  Moth,  Fig.  222, 


Fig.  222.— The  Rusty  Vapor  Moth. 

of  a  light-brown  color. 
Though  it  is  rather 
homely,  it  comes  from 
a  caterpillar  which  is 
very  beautiful,  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  223.  Its 
body  is  covered  with 
long,  fine  yellow  hairs, 
and  has  at  each  end  two 
elegant  brush-like  tufts. 
Its  head  is  as  red  as 
sealing-wax,  and  there 
Fig.  223.— cato-piiiar  Of  Rusty  Vapor  Moth,  are  prominences  on  its 


HALF-WINGED   INSECTS.  289 

back  of  the  same  color.  The  motions  of  these  caterpillars 
are  very  slow,  and  they  eat  but  little.  Commonly  the 
perfect  insect  has  more  beauty  than  the  larva  from  which 
it  comes,  but  here  we  have  an  example  of  a  contrary 
character. 

Questions. — What  characterizes  the  wings  of  the  Lepidoptera? 
What  is  said  of  the  shapes  and  arrangements  of  the  scales  ?  Which 
are  the  Mandibulate  orders  of  insects,  and  which  are  the  Haustellate  ? 
What  is  the  construction  of  the  haustellum  of  the  Lepidoptera? 
What  are  the  two  kinds  of  legs  of  their  larvae,  and  how  are  they  used  ? 
Describe  the  two  modes  of  walking.  What  is  the  food  of  caterpil- 
lars ?  What  is  said  of  the  quantity  which  they  eat  ?  How  are  cater- 
pillars of  great  service  to  us  ?  What  is  said  of  their  spinning  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Tent-caterpillars  ?  What  of  the  Canker-worm  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  habits  of  the  Lepidoptera  ?  How  are  the  Butterflies 
distinguished  from  the  Moths  ?  What  is  said  of  the  pupae  of  the  But- 
terflies ?  How  many  families  are  there  of  Butterflies  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  Troilus  ?  What  of  the  Berenice  ?  What  are  the  two  groups 
of  Moths?  What  is  said  of  the  Crepuscular  Moths?  What  of  the 
Humming-bird  Moth?  What  of  the  Nocturnal  Moths?  What  of 
the  Clothes  Moth?  What  of  the  Rusty  Vapor  Moth  and  its  larva  ? 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

HALF-WINGED   AND  TWO-WINGED   INSECTS. 

491.  THE  insects  of  the  order  Hemiptera  present  many 
curious  varieties.  They  agree,  however,  generally  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  mouth,  it  being  adapted  to  suction 
by  a  beak  which  is  singularly  constructed.  It  is  a  horny 
sheath,  containing  in  a  channel  or  groove  four  stiff  bris- 
tles as  sharp  as  needles.  This  instrument,  which  is  thus 
fitted  for  both  piercing  and  sucking,  when  not  in  use  is 
bent  under  the  body,  and  lies  against  the  chest.  This 
order  is  termed  by  some  Rhynchota,  from  a  Greek  word, 
meaning  beak.  The  food  of  these  insects  consists  of  the 
juices  of  plants  in  most  cases,  but  in  some  of  those  •  of 
animals.  They  are  called  Hemiptera,  half-winged,  on 

N 


290  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

account  of  the  peculiar  construction  of  their  wing-cases, 
the  fore  part  of  which  is  thick  and  opaque,  while  the 
hinder  half  is  thin  and  transparent.  There  are  some 
which  have  the  wing-covers  transparent  throughout,  and 
some,  also,  that  have  no  wings — as  Bedbugs;  but,  as 
both  have  the  peculiar  beak  of  this  order,  they  are  ranked 
here. 

492.  The  insects  of  this  order  do  not  appear  first  as 
caterpillars,  like  the  Butterflies;  or  as  grubs,  like  the 
Beetles  ;  or  as  maggots,  like  the  Bees  and  Flies.     They 
come  forth  from  their  eggs  in  an  almost  perfect  condi- 
tion, except  that  they  are  then  wingless.     The  Cicadas, 
however,  are  an  exception.     They  live  in  the  larva  state 
in  the  ground  even  for  some  years.     I  will  notice  a  few 
of  the  prominent  families  of  the  order. 

493.  Of  the  family  of  Cicada,  famous  for  their  chirp- 
ing sounds,  the  Red-eyed  Cicada,  or  Seventeen-years 
Locust,  Fig.  224,  is  the  one  with  which  we  are  familiar. 


Fig.  224.— Red-eyed  Cicada. 

The  females  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  trees ;  the  larvae 
hatched  from  them  descend  and  enter  the  ground,  where 
they  feed  on  roots.  The  change  from  larva  to  imago  is 
effected  in  this  way.  When  this  is  about  to  take  place, 
the  grub  comes  up  out  of  the  ground,  and,  with  its  strong 
feet,  fastens  itself  to  a  fence  or  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  The 
back  now  gapes  open,  as  seen  in  Fig.  225  (p.  291),  and 
a  winged  insect  comes  forth,  leaving  the  horny  shell  of 
its  grub  state  clinging  to  the  spot  where  the  change 


HALF-WINGED   INSECTS.  291 

takes  place.  Sometimes  the  animal 
is  not  able  to  effect  its  exit,  and  dies 
in  the  struggle.  These  shells  may 
often  be  found  clinging  to  trees  and 
fences  in  considerable  numbers.  It 
is  supposed  that  the  Seventeen-years 
Locusts  really  remain  in  their  grub 
state  under  ground  seventeen  years, 
but  Jaeger  holds  to  the  contrary. 

494.  The  Frog-hoppers  are  so  call- 
ed from  their  great  power  of  leaping. 
Fig.  225.-Grub  of  cicada.  Thoge  of  t^s  famiiy  most  familiar  to 

us  are  the  Tree-hoppers,  of  which  a  specimen  is  given  in 
Fig.  226.  The  thorax  or  chest  of  these  insects 
is  very  large.  They  are  commonly  motionless 
for  hours  together ;  but  if  they  are  disturbed, 
they  make  a  sudden  leap  of  two  or  three  hund- 
Fig.  226.-The  red  times  their  own  length,  and,  spreading  out 
their  wings,  fly  off  to  some  other  spot.  The 
insects  of  this  family  are  sometimes  called  Froth-hoppers, 
from  a  frothy  fluid  which  exudes  from  them.  In  some 
species,  in  tropical  countries,  this  exudation  is  very  abun- 
dant. 

495.  The  Aphidse,  or  Plant  Lice,  have  small,  round, 
full  bodies,  presenting  different  colors  on  different  plants. 
Some  have  wings  and  some  have  not.  They  live  in 
great  numbers  on  the  stalks  and  leaves  of  plants,  sucking 
the  sap  with  their  beaks.  The  postures  which  they 
sometimes  assume  is  very  amusing.  I  saw  the  past 
summer  in  my  garden  some  stalks  of  the  wild  Aster 
lined  with  them  from  top  to  bottom,  and  every  one  had 
its  head  downward.  The  hind  legs  did  not  touch  the 
stalk  at  all,  but  were  raised  up,  and  the  insects  rested 
on  the  fore  legs  and  the  beak.  Thus  standing  out,  and 
being  of  a  reddish  color,  they  gave  the  appearance  of  or- 
namental appendages,  until  the  eye  was  brought  near 
enough  to  see  what  they  were. 


292  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

496.  On  the  back  of  these  insects  there  project  behind 
two  tubes,  from  which  issues  a  sweet  fluid.     Ants  are 
very  fond  of  this,  and  take  it  from  the  tubes  as  it  exudes, 
or  from  the  surface  of  the  plants,  where  it  is  known  as 
honey-dew.     The  Aphides  are,  therefore,  appropriately 
called  the  milch-cows  of  the  Ants.     Some  species  of  Ants 
even  gather  them  into  flocks,  and  keep  them  in  a  sort 
of  pasture,  as  we  do  cows. 

497.  The  Scale-insects,  though  very  small,  are,  like  the 
Aphides,  greatly  injurious  to  plants.     Like  them,  they 
are  abundantly  prolific,  and  when  they  once  get  posses- 
sion of  a  plant  or  young  tree,  it  is  almost  certain  to  die, 
the  minute  size  of  the  Iarva3  of  the  insect  rendering  it 
almost  impossible  to  find  and  exterminate  them.     The 
name  Shield-louse,  so  often  given  to  these  insects,  is  de- 
rived from  the  appearance  of  the  female,  which,  with  its 
shield-shape,  clings  tightly  to  the  plant,  looking  more 
like  a  wart  than  an  animal.     It  lives  on  the  sap,  which  it 
sucks  with  its  beak  or  snout.     It  deposits  eggs  on  the 
bark,  covering  them  with  a  sort  of  cottony  secretion. 
It  then  dies,  and  its  dried  body  forms  another  covering 
for  the  eggs.     The  cochineal,  so  valuable  to  commerce, 
is  a  scale-insect.     It  is  found  chiefly  in  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America.     It  is  estimated  that  the  export  of  coch- 
ineal from  these  countries  is  to  the  amount  annually  of 
two  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars.     This  rich  dyeing  ma- 
terial was  used  for  a  long  time  without  its  being  known 
what  it  was;  and  a  French  naturalist, in  1792,  was  uni- 
versally ridiculed  for  asserting  that  cochineal  was  an  in- 
sect.   It  is  gathered  from  cactus  plants,  which  are  large- 
ly cultivated  in  plantations  for  the  purpose  of  raising  this 
insect  for  the  market.     The  lac  of  the  East  Indies,  so  ex- 
tensively employed  in  the  composition  of  varnishes,  seal- 
ing-wax, etc.,  is  the  product  of  another  species  of  these 
insects. 

498.  There  are  various  bugs  belonging  to  this  order, 
in  some  of  which  the  wings  are  entirely  absent.     They 


TWO-WINGED    INSECTS.  293 

are  divided  into  two  sections — Land-bugs  and  Water- 
bugs.  To  the  former  section  belong  the  Bedbugs  be- 
fore referred  to.  Of  the  Water-bugs  there  are  only  two 
families — the  Boat-flies  and  the  Water  Scorpions.  The 
former  are  good  swimmers,  always  swimming  on  the 
back.  They  can  fly  well,  but  rarely  do  it. 

499.  The  Diptera,  or  two -winged  insects,  constitute 
one  of  the  most  extensive  orders,  both  in  the  number  of 
species  and  in  the  number  of  individuals.    None  of  them 
are  large,  and  some  are  exceedingly  small.    For  the  most 
part  they  are  duh1  in  color.     On  the  head  are  two  very 
large  compound  eyes,  and  two  short  antennae  near  to- 
gether.    In  some  there  is  a  soft  proboscis,  as  the  com- 
mon House-fly ;  in  others,  a  hard,  pointed,  sucking  tube, 
as  in  the  Musquito ;  and  in  others  still,  simply  a  mouth. 
They  have  three  pairs  of  feet,  and  two  thin  wings,  which, 
in  most   cases,  give  out  a  humming  sound  in  flying. 
Their  larvae  are  generally  maggots,  white,  and  having 
no  feet,  but  instead  thereof  fleshy  tubercles  or  warts,  on 
which  they  crawl.     Most  of  the  larvae  live  in  dirt,  or 
dung-hills,  or  spoiled  meat,  or  cheese,  etc.     The  meta- 
morphosis is  complete,  but  in  some  cases  very  peculiar. 

500.  The  species  of  Flies  are  very  numerous.     There 
are  about  seventeen  hundred  known  in  Europe.     The 
larvae  of  Flies,  the  maggots,  generally  live  in  some  kind 
of  filth ;  but  the  Flies  themselves  live,  for  the  most  part, 
on  dainty  food.     The  wing  of  a  common  Fly,  examined 
under  the  microscope,  is  a  beautiful  object.    Although  to 
the  naked  eye  it  has  a  very  plain  appearance,  it  is  cover- 
ed with  little  pointed  projections  of  curious  shape  regu- 
larly arranged. 

501.  The  larvae  found  in  cheese  come  from  eggs  depos- 
ited by  a  small  Fly.     From  their  great  power  in  leaping 
they  are  called  Cheese-hoppers.     The  manner  in  which 
the  leap  is  performed  is  very  singular,  and  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Carpenter :  "  When  preparing  to  leap,  it  first 
raises  itself  upon  its  tail,  in  which  position  it  is  enabled 


294 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


to  balance  itself  by  means  of  some  prominent  tubercles 
on  the  last  segment  of  the  body.  It  then  bends  itself 
into  a  circle,  and  having  brought  the  head  toward  the 
tail,  it  stretches  out  the  two  hooks  of  the  mouth,  fixing 
them  into  two  cavities  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  body. 
It  then  contracts  the  body  from  a  circular  to  an  oblong 
figure — the  contraction  extending  in  a  manner  to  every 
part  of  the  body.  It  now  suddenly  lets  go  its  hold,  and 
straightens  the  body  with  such  violence  that  the  noise 
produced  by  its  hooks  is  very  perceptible.  The  height 
of  the  leap  is  often  from  twenty  to  thirty  times  the  length 
of  the  body,  exhibiting  an  energy  of  motion  which  is  par 
ticularly  remarkable  in  the  soft  larva  of  an  insect.  A 
Viper,  if  endowed  with  similar  powers,  would  throw  it 
self  nearly  a  hundred  feet  from  the  ground." 


Fig.  227 Wriggler. 


TWO-WINGED   INSECTS. 


295 


502.  The  Musquito  family  are  remarkable  in  many  re- 
spects, but  chiefly  for  the  peculiar  mode  of  their  meta- 
morphosis. The  common  Musquito,  when  first  hatched, 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  water,  and  is,  from  its  antic  and 
rapid  motions,  called  a  Wriggler.  In  Fig.  227  you  see 
the  animal  of  its  natural  size,  and  also  as  it  looks  when 
magnified.  Though  it  lives  in  the  water,  it  is  not  like  a 
fish,  for  it  has  no  gills.  It  is  more  like  a  whale,  for  it  is 
obliged  to  come  occasionally  to  the  surface  to  breathe. 
Its  breathing  apparatus  is  near  its  tail.  The  air  is  taken 
in  through  a  tube  made  of  hairs,  represented  at  A.  After 
the  insect  arrives  at  its  proper  size  it  comes  to  the  sur- 
face with  its  back  upward,  which  gapes  open,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Cicada  (§  493),  and  the  winged  insect  emerges, 
as  seen  in  an  enlarged  representation  in  Fig.  228.  It 


Fig.  228. 

rests  upon  its  cast-off  skin  as  a  boat,  while  it  unfolds  and 
expands  its  wings,  and  then  flies  off.  Great  care  is  re- 
quired in  this  operation,  as  there  is  danger  that  the  in- 


296  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

sect  will  be  plunged  into  the  water  before  it  expands  its 
wings. 

503.  The  eggs  of  the  Musquito  are  deposited  on  the 
surface  of  stagnant  water  to  the  number  of  about  three 
hundred,  fastened  together  as  you  see  in  Fig.  229.  They 
thus  make  a  sort  of  raft  which  swims  on  the  surface. 


Fig.  229. 

The  large  ends  of  the  eggs  are  downward,  and  it  is  out 
of  these  that  the  larvae  come,  diving  down  into  the  wa- 
ter. There  is  a  lid  at  the  blunt  end  of  the  egg  which  is 
opened  to  let  the  larva  out.  Some  species  do  not  have 
this  mode  of  arranging  their  eggs. 

504.  The  proboscis  which  is  visible  to  us,  and  which 
the  insect  so  deliberately  adjusts  upon  the  skin  when  it 
alights,  is  not  the  stinging  apparatus,  but  the  sheath  or 
scabbard  of  it.     It  incloses  some  bristles  with  lancet- 
shaped  points.     When  the  skin  is  pierced  by  these,  the 
blood  is  sucked  up  through  the  sheath.     It  is  supposed 
that  the  irritation  attending  the  bite  is  occasioned  by  the 
saliva  of  the  insect  introduced  into  the  wound  to  dilute 
the  blood  that  it  may  more  readily  be  sucked  up.     In 
Fig.  230  you  have  at  A  the  sheath  closed,  both  of  the 
natural  size  and  magnified.    In  the  lower  figure  you  have 
the  whole  instrument  opened  —  at  B  the  sheath,  at  C 
three  lancets,  and  at  D  protectors.    At  F  you  see  these 
parts  of  their  natural  size.     This  is  the  arrangement  of 
the  proboscis  of  the  common  American  Musquito.     It  is 
different,  however,  in  the  different  species  of  this  insect. 

505.  The  different  species  of  Musquitoes,  of  which 
there  are  many,  are  quite  widely  diffused  in  the  earth. 


TWO-WINGED    INSECTS. 


297 


F 


Fig.  230. 

They  are  "generally  most  troublesome  in  warm  climates, 
and  in  the  tropics  they  are  present  throughout  the  year. 
But  there  are  some  cold  countries  in  which,  during  their 
brief  but  hot  summers,  they  are  not  only  extremely  an- 
noying, but  occasionally  very  destructive.  This  is  the 
case  with  parts  of  Russia,  both  in  Europe  and  in  Asia. 
Even  such  animals  as  horses,  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  and 
hogs,  are  so  severely  stung  by  them  as  to  die,  some  meet- 
ing their  death  by  drowning,  having  run  into  water  to 
escape  the  swarms  of  their  small  but  formidable  enemies. 
At  some  periods  it  seems  in  that  country  to  be  the  grand 
business  of  life  to  devise  and  put  in  execution  expedients 
for  guarding  man  and  beast  against  these  insects. 


298 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


506.  The  insects  of  the  order  Aphaniptera,  the  Fleas 
and  their  allies,  have  only  the  most  indistinct  rudiments 
of  wings ;  but  the  metamorphosis  is  complete.  The  lar- 
vae inclose  themselves  in  small  silk  cocoons  to  pass  into 

^       -^  the  imago  state.    The 

common  Flea,  a  mag- 
nified representation  of 
which  is  given  in  Fig. 
231,  has  a  curious  ap- 
paratus for  sucking 
blood,  which  is  very 
beautiful  as  examined 
with  a  microscope. 
This  insect,  like  other 
great  leapers,  as  Grasshoppers,  Frog -hoppers,  etc.,  has 
very  large  hind  legs. 

507.  In  the  order  Apte- 
ra,  or  wingless  insects,  are 
found  the  different  kinds  of 
Lice  which  infest  different 
animals.  In  Figure  232  is 
represented  the  common 
Louse;  at  a  of  the  ordinary 
size,  at  b  magnified.  At  c 
is  one  of  its  legs  magnified ; 
at  d  are  its  eggs,  also  mag- 
nified. 


. — Flea. 


I 

Fig.  232.— Louse. 


Questions. — What  is  said  of  the  haustellate  apparatus  of  the  Hemip- 
tera  ?  What  gives  them  their  name  ?  What  is  said  of  their  meta- 
morphosis? How  are  the  Cicadas  an  exception  to  this?  What  is 
said  of  the  Red-eyed  Cicada  ?  What  of  the  Frog-hoppers  ?  De- 
scribe the  Aphidse  and  their  habits.  What  is  said  of  their  honey- 
dew  ?  What  is  said  of  the  scale-insects  ?  What  of  Cochineal  ? 
What  is  said  of  some  aberrant  bugs  of  this  order  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  extent  of  the  order  Diptera  ?  What  of  the  size  of  these  insects  ? 
What  are  their  peculiarities?  What  is  said  of  their  larvae?  What 
is  said  of  Flies  ?  What  are  Cheese-hoppers  ?  Describe  their  mode 
of  leaping.  Describe  the  larvae  of  the  common  Musquito.  Describe 


THE   ARACHNIDA.          ff      V          OF2W&E 

its  metamorphosis.  What  is  said  of  its  eggs  ?  HWesWiTOtJe IfarBgE  S  I 
ment  of  the  proboscis.  What  is  said  of  the  Musquitoes  in  various 
regions  of  the  earth  ?  What  is  said  of  the  order  Aphaniptera  ?  What 
of  the  order  Aptera  ? 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

THE   AKACHNIDA. 

508.  THE  second  class  of  the  Articulata  is  that  of  the 
Myriapoda,  the  Centipedes,  §  388.     This  I  will  not  dwell 
upon,  but  will  pass  directly  to  the  third  class,  the  Arach- 
nida.    This  class  was  for  a  long  time  included  among  the 
Insects,  and  Spiders  are  very  generally  spoken  of  now, 
in  common  conversation,  as  belonging  to  that  class ;  but 
the  Arachnida  differ  from  Insects  in  several  important 
particulars.    The  head  of  Insects  is  distinct  from  the 
chest,  but  in  the  Arachnida  the  head  and  chest  are  united 
in  one ;  and  this  is  called  the  cephalo-thorax.     Insects  in 
their  perfect  state  have  but  six  legs,  but  the  Arachnida 
have  eight.    The  Arachnida  have  not  the  compound 
eyes  of  Insects.    Again,  the  antennae  of  Insects  are  want- 
ing in  the  Arachnida. 

509.  The  Arachnida  are  carnivorous ;  but  generally, 
instead  of  eating  their  prey,  they  suck  the  juices  from 
their  bodies.     Many  of  them  have  a  poison  apparatus, 
by  which  they  can  destroy  more  readily  those  victims 
whose  strength  would  otherwise  be  too  much  for  them. 
They  have  mandibles  and  pincers  very  much  like  those 
of  insects.     In  those  which  are  parasitical — that  is,  those 
which  dwell  on  other  animals — the  mouth  has  the  form 
of  a  trunk  or  proboscis  armed  with  a  kind  of  lancet.    The 
Scorpions  have  a  curved  and  pointed  instrument  at  the 
end  of  the  tail,  as  seen  in  Fig.  233  (p.  300).     They  have 
large  claws,  like  those  of  the  Lobster,  with  which  they 
seize  their  victims,  and  then  pierce  them  with  this  curved 
sting,  which  is  armed  with  poison  from  a  gland. 


SOU 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Fig.  233.— The  Scorpion. 


510.  The  class  of 
Arachnida  is  divided 
into  two  groups.  In 
the  first  group  the 
respiratory  organs 
are  different  from 
those  of  Insects.  In- 
stead of  passages  ev- 
ery where  for  air, 

'  are  some  sac  or  bag  like  cavities  in  the  abdomen, 
and  in  these  are  thin  membranous  plates  arranged  like 
the  leaves  of  a  book.  The  air  goes  in  among  these,  and 
acts  on  the  blood  in  the  vessels  spread  out  on  them. 
This  group  includes  the  Spiders  and  Scorpions.  In  the 
second  group  the  respiratory  apparatus  is  like  that  of 
Insects.  This  includes  Mites  of  various  kinds,  Father- 
long-legs,  the  minute  red  Spiders  of  green-houses,  etc. 

511.  Most  of  the  true  Spiders  are  great  spinners.  They 
do  not  spin  for  themselves  a  cocoon  as  the  caterpillars 
do,  for  they  undergo  no  metamorphosis.  They  spin  chief- 
ly for  two  purposes — to  construct  a  dwelling  for  them- 
selves, and  to  construct  traps  to  catch  their  prey.  Some 
also,  like  some  of  the  caterpillars,  spin  as  they  drop  to 
escape  their  enemies,  and  thus  save  themselves  from  a 
fall.  Some  throw  out  a  long  thread  into  the  air  from 
their  spinning  machine,  and  let  it,  when  it  is  of  sufficient 
length,  bear  them  aloft  like  a  balloon.  And  some  spin  a 
cocoon  in  which  they  deposit  their  eggs.  I  found  one 
of  these  cocoons  the  past  summer  fastened  to  the  bark 
of  a  tree.  I  opened  it,  and  it  was  all  a  moving  mass 
within.  On  looking  at  it  with  a  pocket  microscope,  I 
found  that  it  was  full  of  little  Spiders,  which  probably 
had  just  been  hatched  from  the  eggs,  but  were  not  yet 
ready  to  come  out.  The  manner  in  which  the  cocoon  is 
formed  and  filled  with'  eggs  is  curious.  The  Spider  first 
spins  the  lower  half  of  it,  and  into  this  silken  cup  it  drops 
the  eggs.  It  not  only  fills  it,  but  piles  up  eggs  on  top 


THE   ABACHNIDA.  301 

with  great  care,  so  that  there  are  as  many  above  as  in 
the  cup.     It  then  finishes  spinning  the  cocoon. 

512.  The  Caterpillars  spin  from  the  head,  but  the  Spi- 
der spins  from  the  other  extremity  of  the  body.    Its  spin- 
ning apparatus  is  of  peculiar  construction.     Inside  is  a 
reservoir  of  gummy  matter  from  which  the  silk  is  made. 
The  threads  of  a  Spider's  web  are  drawn  out  from  it, 
and  dry  as  fast  as  they  are  drawn.    But  the  thread,  which 
appears  to  the  eye  as  single,  is  found  by  the  microscope 
to  be  composed  of  many  thousands  of  threads  united  to- 
gether.    In  Fig.  234  you  see,  as  the  Spider  hangs  by  his 

thread,  that  it  comes 
out  from  a  circular 
spot.  In  this  are  four 
and  sometimes  six 
knobs,  which  can  be 
seen  by  the  naked  eye. 
Each  of  these  is  full  of 
holes  through  which 
the  threads  come,  and 
these  holes  are  so  mi- 
nute that  Reaumur  cal- 
culated that  a  thou- 
sand occupied  a  space 
no  larger  than  the 
point  of  a  pin.  In  Fig. 
235  (p.  302)  is  repre- 
Fis- 234-  sented  such  a  view  of 

these  knobs  as  you  would  get  by  a  powerful  microscope. 

A  portion  only  of  the  minute  threads  are  represented. 

It  was  the  calculation  of  Leuwenhoeck  that  it  would 

take  four  millions  of  them  to  make  a  thread  as  large  as  a 

hair. 

513.  These  threads  are  united  together  about  one  tenth 
of  an  inch  in  distance  from  the  spinnerets.     By  this  sep- 
arate exposure  to  the  air  of  each  threadlet,  they  all  be- 
come dry  before  their  union.     Another  advantage  of  this 


302 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


arrangement  is  the  securing 
of  greater  strength  to  the 
thread,  for  it  is  well  known 
in  rope-making  that,  in  cords 
of  equal  thickness,  those 
which  are  composed  of  many 
smaller  cords  are  stronger 
than  those  which  are  spun 
at  once.  Another  advant- 
age still  is,  that  these  minute 
threadlets  can  be  better  at- 
tached to  an  ob- 
ject than  a  single 
thread.  When 

Fig.  235.— Spider's  Threads  coming  from     ,        Q    .,  , 

the  spinnerets.  the  opider  makes 

an  attachment  of  his  thread,  he  presses  the  spin- 
nerets against  the  spot  selected,  and  thus  fast- 
ens the  ends  of  the  threadlets  projecting  from 
the  holes  over  quite  a  space.  This  is  seen  in 
Fig.  236,  which  represents  an  attachment  of 
this  kind,  as  seen  with  the  microscope.  Fig- 236- 

514.  The  foot  of  a  Spider,  a  magnified  view  of  which 

is  given  in  Fig.  237, 
has  three  claws,  one 
of  which  acts  as  a 
sort  of  thumb,  and 
the  others  are  tooth- 
ed as  a  comb.  It  is 
supposed  that  these 
combs  are  used  hi 
preventing  tangling  of  the  threads  in  the  web,  and  also 
in  removing  any  particles  that  may  become  attached  to 
it.  When  a  Spider  has  let  itself  down  from  any  place 
by  its  thread,  if  it  goes  up  again  upon  it,  it  gathers  up 
the  thread  into  a  ball  with  its  claws  and  throws  it  away. 
So,  also,  if  any  part  of  its  web  is  rendered  useless  by  any 
thing  which  becomes  attached  to  it,  it  is  separated  from 


Fig.  £  37.  —Triple-clawed  Foot  of  a  Spider,  mag- 
nified. 


THE   ARACHNIDA.  303 

the  rest,  collected  into  a  packet,  and  cast  off.  Mr.  Ren- 
nie,  the  author  of  a  very  interesting  book  on  insect  arch- 
itecture, describes  a  process  of  this  kind  which  he  ob- 
served on  board  of  a  steam-boat.  It  was  a  geometric 
Spider,  that  is,  one  that  forms  its  web  of  regular  circular 
lines.  The  web  or  net  was  covered  with  flakes  of  soot. 
"  Some  of  the  lines,"  he  says,  "  she  dexterously  stripped 
of  the  flakes  of  soot  adhering  to  them ;  but  in  the  greater 
number,  finding  that  she  could  not  get  them  sufficiently 
clean,  she  broke  them  quite*  off,  bundled  them  up,  and 
tossed  them  over.  We  counted  five  of  these  packets  of 
rubbish  which  she  thus  threw  away,  though  there  must 
have  been  many  more,  as  it  was  some  time  before  we 
discovered  the  manoeuvre,  the  packets  being  so  small  as 
not  to  be  readily  perceived,  except  when  placed  between 
the  eye  and  the  light.  When  she  had  cleared  off  all  the 
sooted  lines,  she  began  to  replace  them  in  the  usual 
way." 

515.  Many  observations  have  been  made,  and  experi- 
ments tried,  to  determine  how  Spiders  transport  them- 
selves from  tree  to  tree,  across  brooks,  or  even  sometimes 
through  the  air,  without  any  visible  starting-point.  The 
subject  is  not  entirely  cleared  up,  but  it  is  well  ascer- 
tained that  they  spin  out  the  thread,  letting  the  wind 
take  it,  trying  it  occasionally  with  the  feet  to  decide 
whether  the  farther  end  has  attached  itself  to  any  object. 
So  soon  as  the  Spider  finds  by  pulling  on  it  that  it  is 
fastened,  it  runs  along  upon  it,  strengthening  its  cable 
by  spinning  another  as  it  goes.  Spiders  have  not,  as 
some  have  supposed,  the  power  of  projecting  their  lines 
in  opposition  to  the  moving  air,  but  they  uniformly  put 
their  bodies  in  such  position  that  the  line  may  go  with 
the  air,  that  is  with  the  head  toward  the  direction  from 
which  the  breeze  comes.  They  watch  the  wind  as  much 
as  the  sailor  does.  The  little  gossamer  Spiders  let  their 
lines,  like  balloons,  carry  them  off  into  the  air,  breaking 
loose  from  the  objects  on  which  they  stand  when  they 


304  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

feel  themselves  acted  upon  by  a  force  sufficient  for  that 
purpose.  They  may  thus  be  seen  mounting  aloft  from 
the  tops  of  twigs  and  blades  of  grass,  from  fences,  etc. 

516.  The  architecture  of  Spiders  has  considerable  va- 
riety.    That  of  the  house  Spider  and  that  of  the  com- 
mon geometric  Spider  are  familiar  to  every  one.    That 
of  the  labyrinthic  Spider  is  very  curious.     Its  nest  may 
be  seen  spread  out  a  broad  sheet  on  hedges,  furze,  low 
bushes,  and  sometimes  on  the  ground.     "The  middle 
of  this  sheet,"  says  Rennie,  "  which  is  of  a  close  texture, 
is  swung,  like  a  sailor's  hammock,  by  silken  ropes  extend- 
ed all  around  to  the  higher  branches;  but  the  whole 
curves  upward  and  backward,  sloping  downward  to  a 
long  funnel-shaped  gallery  which  is  nearly  horizontal  at 
the  entrance,  but  soon  winds  obliquely  till  it  becomes 
quite  perpendicular.    This  curved  gallery  is  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  is  much  more  closely 
woven  than  the  sheet  part  of  the  web,  and  sometimes 
descends  into  a  hole  in  the  ground,  though  oftener  into 
a  group  of  crowded  twigs  or  a  tuft  of  grass.    Here 
the  Spider  dwells  secure,  frequently  resting  with  her 
legs  extended  from  the  entrance  of  the  gallery,  ready 
to  spring  out  upon  whatever  insect  may  fall  into  her 
sheet-net." 

517.  There  are  some  species  of  spiders  that  build  their 
nests  of  clay,  which  they  knead  into  due  shape,  and 
hence  are  called  Mason  Spiders.     There  is  one  of  these 
found  in  the  West  Indies.     This  Spider  digs  a  hole  ob- 
liquely in  the  earth  about  three  inches  deep  and  one  inch 
in  diameter,  the  walls  of  it  being  made  of  clay.     This 
cavity  it  lines  with  a  thick  web,  which,  when  taken  out, 
resembles  a  leathern  purse.     This  tapestried  chamber 
has  a  very  singular  door.     It  is  made  of  about  a  dozen 
layers  of  this  same  lining,  closely  united  together,  and 
has  a  hinge  of  the  same  material.     In  Fig.  238  (p.  305) 
is  represented  the  nest  of  another  Mason  Spider  found 
in  France,  A  being  the  nest  shut,  and  B  the  nest  open ; 


THE   AKACHNIDA. 


305 


Fig.  238.— Nest  of  a  Mason  Spider. 

C  the  Spider,  D  the  eyes  magnified,  and  E  and  F  parts 
of  the  foot  and  claw  magnified. 

518.  There  is  a  Spider  common  in  the  woods  that 
weaves  together  a  great  many  leaves  for  a  dwelling,  and 
in  front  of  this  spreads  its  snares  to  catch  its  prey.   When 
winter  approaches  it  leaves  its  eggs  in  this  nest  to  be 
hatched  the  following  spring,  and  itself  retires  to  some 
hollow  tree  to  die. 

519.  An  English  clergyman,  Mr.  Shepherd,  has  often 
seen  in  the  fen  ditches  of  Norfolk  a  very  large  Spider 
that  makes  a  raft  by  fastening  weeds  together  with  silk- 
en threads,  and  sails  forth  on  this  in  search  of  insects  that 
may  chance  to  get  into  the  water.     But  the  most  inter- 
esting water-spider  is  one  that  makes  for  itself  a  silken 
diving-bell,  which  looks  in  the  water  like  a  little  silver 
globe.    This  is  sometimes  partly  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,  but  at  others  it  is  fastened  by  silken  ropes  to  ob- 
jects below.    The  Spider  contrives  in  some  way  to  carry 


306 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


air  down  to  its  diving-bell,  coming  up  every  now  and 
then  to  the  surface  for  this  purpose. 

520.  I  have  already  said  enough  of  the  Scorpions 
(§509),  and  on  the  second  group  of  the  Arachnida  I  will 
spend  but  a  few  words.  Among  the  Mites  is  the  animal 
which  occasions  the  disease  called  the  itch,  an  enlarged 
representation  of  which  you  have  in  Fig.  239.  It  has  an 
oval  body,  a  mouth  armed  with 
bristles,  and  eight  feet,  four  of 
which  have  suckers  at  the  end. 
There  is  a  great  variety  of  mites 
which  are  found  on  plants  and  an- 
imals, and  some  live  in  the  water, 
swimming  about  with  great  free- 
dom. The  scarlet  Mite  of  our  gar- 
dens has  a  most  brilliant  scarlet 
color.  The  Harvest-men,  so  ap- 
propriately called  Father-long-legs, 
as  they  have,  perhaps,  longer  legs 
than  any  other  annual  of  any  kind, 
are  mostly  very  agile.  The  Book 
Scorpions,  so  called,  are  little 
Arachnida  which  inhabit  herbariums,  old  books,  etc. 
They  are  good  runners,  often  going  sidewise  like  crabs, 
and  they  hunt  the  minute  insects  which  are  found  in  such 
situations. 

Qtiestions. — How  do  the  Arachnida  differ  from  insects?  What  is 
said  of  their  food  ?  What  of  their  means  of  killing  their  prey  ?  What 
is  said  of  those  which  are  parasitical  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Scor- 
pions ?  What  are  the  two  groups  of  the  Arachnida  ?  What  are  the 
two  chief  purposes  for  which  Spiders  spin  ?  What  other  purposes  are 
sometimes  accomplished  by  it  ?  What  is  said  of  the  cocoons  which 
some  Spiders  spin  ?-  Describe  the  spinning  apparatus  of  Spiders. 
What  is  said  of  the  compound  character  of  the  Spider's  thread  ?  Why 
is  it  not  spun  whole  ?  What  is  said  of  the  mode  of  its  attachment  ? 
Describe  the  foot  of  a  Spider.  What  is  the  use  of  the  combs  in  it  ? 
Describe  its  mode  of  repairing  its  web.  What  is  known  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  Spiders  transport  themselves  from  one  spot  to  another 


Fig.  239.— Sarcoptes  Scabiei, 
or  Acarus  of  the  Itch. 


CRUSTACEANS.  307 

by  their  threads  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Gossamer  Spiders  ?  Describe 
the  architecture  of  the  Labyrinthic  Spider.  What  is  said  of  the  Mason 
Spiders  ?  What  of  the  Spider  that  weaves  leaves  together  ?  What 
of  the  Spider  that  builds  a  raft  ?  What  of  the  Diving-bell  Spider  ? 
What  are  some  of  the  Arachnida  of  the  second  group  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  Mites  ?  What  of  the  Harvest-men  ?  What  of  the  Book  Scor- 
pions ? 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

CRUSTACEANS,  AND  THE  WORM  AND  LEECH   TRIBE. 

521.  THE  class  of  the  Articulata  called  Crustacea  has 
its  name  from  the  Latin  word  crusta,  a  crust  or  shell. 
It  includes  Lobsters,  Crabs,  Prawns,  Shrimps,  Sowbugs, 
Sand-fleas,  Barnacles,  etc.    Lobsters  and  Crabs  are  the 
most  perfect  animals  of  the  class. 

522.  There  is  considerable  resemblance  to  insects,  and 
also  to  Spiders,  in  most  of  these  animals.    Like  the  In- 
sects, they  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — the  mandi- 
bulate  and  the  haustellate.    The  eyes  of  the  Crustacea 
are  generally  compound,  like  those  of  the  Insects.    They 
have  also  antennae.     But  the  Crustacea  differ  from  in- 
sects in  the  character  of  their  respiratory  apparatus. 
They  are  aquatic  animals,  and  breathe  by  gills.    There 
are  a  few  species  that  are  formed  to  live  in  air.    The 
Land  Crabs,  found  mostly  in  the  Antilles,  are  an  exam- 
ple.   In  them  there  is,  above  the  gills,  a  spongy  appara- 
tus, from  which  continually  exudes  a  moisture  that  keeps 
the  gills  from  becoming  dry. 

523.  The  legs  of  the  Crustacea  often  amount  to  seven 
pairs,  as  in  the  "Woodlouse  and  Sandhopper ;  but  in  oth- 
er cases  there  are  five  pairs,  as  in  the  Crab.    The  legs 
are  constructed  very  differently  in  the  various  Crustacea, 
according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are  to  be  used. 
In  some  they  are  leaf-like  membranes,  being  thus  fitted 
for  swimming ;  in  others  they  are  columns  jointed  to- 
gether, to  be  used  only  in  walking ;  in  others  they  are  so 


308 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


shaped  as  to  be  fitted  for  digging  as  well  as  walking ; 
and  in  others  still  they  are  armed  with  pincers,  so  as  to 
be  instruments  of  prehension  as  well  as  locomotion.  In 
those  Crustacea  that  swim,  as  Lobsters,  Prawns,  etc., 
the  abdomen  generally  ends  in  a  large  fin-like  expansion, 
which  works  up  and  down  hi  swimming  like  the  tail  of 
the  Whale.  But  in  those  which  are  to  walk  rather  than 
swim,  as  the  Crab,  this  part  is  small,  and  is  bent  up  un- 
derneath. 

524.  All  Crustacea  come  from  eggs.     The  eggs  are 
commonly  carried  about  adhering  to  the  under  part  of  the 
abdomen.    This  we  often  see  in  the  Lobster.     In  a  boil- 
ed Lobster  they  are  red,  and  the  mass  is  called  the  cor- 
al.    More  than  twelve  thousand  eggs  have  been  found 
attached  to  the  abdomen  of  a  single  Lobster. 

525.  There  is  not  generally  any  true  metamorphosis  in 
this  class.     But  in  some,  the  animal,  when  first  born,  is 
entirely  unlike  the  perfect  animal.    This  is  the  case  with 

the  common  Crab.  In  Fig.  240  you 
see  a  representation  of  the  Crab  when 
it  first  issues  from  the  egg.  The 
large  figure  is  a  magnified  represent- 
ation, the  natural  size  being  given  on 
the  little  scroh1  at  the  side  of  it.  This 
is  almost  as  unlike  the  mature  Crab 
as  the  larva  of  the  Musquito  is  unlike 
the  Musquito  itself  (§  502). 

526.  In  most  of  the  Crustacea  there 
is  manifest  the  ring -like  arrange- 
ment of  segments  which  is  so  char- 
acteristic of  the  Articulata  (§  381). 
But  in  some  it  is  so  much  modified 
as  not  to  be  apparent  without  partic- 
Thus,  in  the  Crab,  as  we  look  on  its 
broad  carapace  of  shell,  the  ring-like  arrangement  seems 
to  be  entirely  forsaken  ;  but  on  examining  closely,  we 
find  that  this  carapace  is  only  an  excessive  enlargement 


Fig.  240.— Early  form  of 
the  Crab. 

ular  observation. 


CEUSTACEANS.  309 

of  one  ring  encroaching  on  the  others  which  are  still 
there,  although  of  very  small  size.  We  see  here  the 
same  disposition  to  have  a  general  plan  that  we  see  ev- 
ery where  in  the  structures  of  nature.  A  type  is  always 
adopted,  and  we  see  traces  of  this  in  the  widest  varia- 
tions from  it. 

527.  The  covering  of  the  Crustacea,  which  is  their 
skeleton,  is  commonly  quite  hard,  being  made  so  by  the 
carbonate  of  lime,  of  which  it  is  in  part  composed.     As 
this  can  not  grow  with  the  other  parts,  it  must  be  shed 
from  time  to  time,  and  a  new  and  larger  covering  be 
formed.    The  manner  in  which  the  old  shell  is  got  rid  of 
is  very  singular.    At  the  proper  time  there  is  effected  a 
separation  between  all  parts  of  the  animal  and  the  shell. 
Then  the  shell  gapes  open  at  some  part,  and  the  animal 
works  itself  out.     This  opening,  in  the  case  of  the  Lob- 
ster, is  down  through  the  middle  line  of  the  back.    The 
animal,  on  emerging,  crawls  into  some  by-place  where  it 
may  be  secure,  and  remains  quiet  for  a  day  or  two  till  a 
new  shell  is  formed.     The  material  is  supplied  from  the 
blood,  just  as  the  material  for  our  internal  skeleton  is 
supplied  from  our  blood. 

528.  The  Crustacea  are  divided  into  fourteen  orders. 
Of  these  I  will  notice  only  a  few. 

529.  The  Decapoda,  or  Ten-footed  Crustacea,  include 
the  Lobsters,  Crabs,  Crayfish,  Prawns,  Shrimps,  etc. 
Nearly  all  the  Crustacea  that  are  used  as  food  are  con 
tained  in  this  order.     One  marked  peculiarity  of  this 
group  is  the  situation  of  the  eyes  on  the  ends  of  foot- 
stalks.    The  habits  of  most  of  these  animals  are  aquatic ; 
but  the  gills  are  inclosed  in  suoji  a  way  that  they  do  not 
soon  become  dry  when  the  animals  are  in  the  air,  and 
hence  they  live  for  some  time  after  being  taken  out  of 
the  water.     They  are  carnivorous  and  very  voracious ; 
and  the  first  pair  of  legs  are  made  into  powerful  claws, 
by  which  they  seize  their  food  and  convey  it  to  the 
mouth.     The  mouth  itself  is  quite  a  complicated  appara- 


310 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


tus,  there  being  three  pairs  of  jaws.  I  have  already  said 
enough  of  the  Lobsters  and  Crabs.  The  Shrimps  and 
Prawns  are  quite  small  animals,  regarded  as  great  deli- 
cacies. In  Fig.  241  the  Shrimp  is  above  and  the  Prawn 
below. 


Fig.  241.— Shrimp  and  Prawn. 

530.  The  Hermit  Crabs,  Fig.  242,  are  very  peculiar 
both  in  their  conformation  and  their  habits.    The  crus- 

taceous  covering  in  the 
case  of  these  animals  is 
confined  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  body.  The  lower 
part  of  the  body,  being 
uncovered,  needs  protec- 
tion, and  the  animal  se- 
cures this  by  inserting  its 
tail  into  some  empty  shell 
which  it  finds.  This  it 
drags  about  with  it  as  it 
wanders  in  search  of  its 
food.  When  it  is  alarmed, 
it  withdraws  itself  wholly 
into  its  portable  house,  closing  the  mouth  of  the  shell 
with  one  of  its  claws.  As  it  grows  it  is  obliged  to  seek 


Fig.  242.— Hermit  Crab. 


CRUSTACEANS. 


311 


a  larger  shell,  and  it  is  amusing  to  see  one  trying  one 
shell  after  another  to  find  one  which  will  fit. 

531.   In  the  order  of  Laemodipoda, 
or  jaw-footed  Crustacea,  is  the  Whale 
Louse,  Figure  243,  which  clings  by  its 
strong  claws  to  the  body  of  the  Whale. 
So  completely  is  the  Whale  sometimes 
covered  by  these  parasites,  that  a  white 
243  — whai       c°l°r  is  given  to  its  skin,  which  can  be 
*'  Louse.    '         seen  at  some  distance. 
532.  The  order  of  Cirrhipoda,  or  tufted-footed  Crusta- 
cea, contains  the  Barnacles,  Fig.  244,  and  their  allies.  The 


Fig.  244— Barnacles. 

Barnacle  looks  like  a  mussel-shell  fixed  to  a  long  stem ; 
but,  on  examination,  it  is  found  that  the  shell  consists 
of  five  pieces,  and  through  the  opening  project  seven 
pairs  of  arms  or  cirrhi.  Two  of  these  are  of  considerable 
size,  and  have  suckers  on  the  end,  by  which  they  can 
hold  on  to  any  thing.  The  other  six  pairs  are  fringed 
with  cilia,  or  hair-like  filaments,  which,  by  their  contin- 
ual motion,  produce  currents  in  the  water.  This  serves 
both  to  bring  minute  animals,  constituting  the  food  of 
the  Barnacle,  within  the  reach  of  the  arms,  and  to  move 
the  water  over  the  gills.  The  animal  has  jaws  which 
take  and  masticate  the  food  brought  to  it  by  the  arms. 
In  Fig.  245  (p.  312)  is  a  Barnacle  with  the  shell  partly 
removed,  to  show  all  the  parts  of  the  animal.  It  is  al- 
ways found  adhering  by  the  stem  to  floating  wood  or 


312 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Fig.  245.— Body  of 
the  Barnacle. 


the  hull  of  a  ship.  In  being  inclosed 
in  a  shell  it  is  like  the  Mollusca,  and 
was  formerly  supposed  to  belong  to 
that  sub-kingdom;  but  the  construc- 
tion of  the  animal  itself  manifestly 
places  it  among  the  Crustaceans. 

533.  To  this  order  belong  also  the 
little  Acorn-shells,  so  called,  which  are 
found  on  the  sea-shore  in   abundance 
adhering  to  rocks,  shells,  etc. 

534.  The  class  of  Annelida,  the  Worm 
and  Leech  tribe,  is  one  of  the  lower 
classes  of  the  Articulata.     The  animals 

belonging  to  it  have  no  articulated  members,  and  there 
is  in  them  a  general  in/eriority  of  structure.  Still,  the 
lateral  symmetry  so  characteristic  of  the  Articulata, 
§  387,  is  retained  in  them.  Tlje  two  halves  of  the  body 
are  alike.  The  body  is  commonly  long,  slender,  and 
more  or  less  cylindrical.  The  division  into  segments, 
manifest  in  most  of  the  Articulata,  is  in  this  class  more 
manifest  internally  than  externally,  it  being  marked  ex- 
ternally only  by  a  wrinkling  of  the  skin. 

535.  The  class  is  divided  into  four  orders,  which  I  will 
briefly  notice.     The  first  is  that  of  the  Dorsi-branchiata 
(dor sum,  back,  and  branchia,  gill),  having  the  gills  ar- 
ranged in  tufts  along  the  length  of  the  body.     The  ani- 
mals belonging  to  this  order  both  crawl  and  swim  with 
facility.     In  tropical  climates  there  are  some  large  spe- 
cies, measuring  even  four  feet,  and  having  the  body  di- 
vided into  four  or  five  hundred  segments.     The  Sea-cen- 
tipede, the  Sea-mouse,  and  the  Lob-worm  belong  to  this 
order. 

536.  The  second   order  is  that  of  the  Tubicola,  so 
called  because  the  animals  live  in  tubes.     One  of  the 
most  common  is  the  Serpula,  one  species  of  which  is 
represented  hi  Fig.  246  (p.  313).     These  animals  live  in 
shell  tubes,  attached  in  groups  to  stones,  shells,  and  other 


THE    WORM    AND    LEECH    TRIBE. 


313 


Fig.  246.— Group  of  Serpulae. 


bodies.  The  shell  is  exuded  from 
the  body  of  the  animal  just  as  the 
covering  of  a  Crustacean  is.  In 
the  figure  one  of  the  animals  is 
stretched  up  out  of  its  shell,  spread- 
ing forth  its  delicate  gill- tufts 
which  are  arranged  around  its 
head.  It  can  withdraw  itself  en- 
tirely within  the  tube,  and  when 
it  does  so  there  is  a  provision  for 
shutting  it  up.  You  see  that  one 
of  the  long  filaments  is  expanded 
at  the  end  into  a  flat,  circular  disk. 
This  is  the  door  which  shuts  down 
on  the  mouth  of  the  tube  after  the 
other  filaments  are  all  drawn  in. 

537.  There  are  other  animals  of  this  group  which,  in- 
stead of  having  a  tubular  shell  exude  from  their  bodies, 
form  one  by  connecting  together,  with  a  gummy  sub- 
stance from  the  mouth,  particles  of  shell,  sand,  small  peb- 
bles, etc.     They  are  in  this  respect  like  the  larvae  of  the 
Caddice-fly,  §  459.     The  Terebella,  Fig.  247,  does  this. 

It  is  here  represented 
with  its  tentacula  ex- 
^~  tending  out  from  the 
tube.     These  are  used 

Fig.247.-TerebellainitsTube.  ^    gathering   itfl   food> 

If  you  take  a  Terebella,  and,  breaking  up  its  tube  care- 
fully, get  the  animal  in  its  naked  state,  you  can,  by 
placing  it  in  some  moist  sand,  see  the  process  by  which 
it  forms  a  new  tube.  In  doing  this  it  takes  each  grain 
into  its  mouth,  and  then,  turning  its  head  backward, 
places  it  in  its  proper  position. 

538.  The  third  order  is  that  of  the  Terricola,  so  called 
because  they  live  in  the  earth.     The  Earthworm  works 
through  the  ground  by  insinuating  its  pointed  head  be- 
tween the  grains  of  dirt,  pushing  itself  forward  by  some 

O 


314 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


little  bristly  points  which  all  look  backward.  There  are 
four  pairs  of  them  on  each  segment.  It  is  on  account  of 
these  that,  while  you  can  pass  the  finger  readily  on  the 
worm  backward,  you  can  feel  resistance  on  attempting 
to  pass  it  forward.  There  are  two  sets  of  muscles  en- 
gaged in  the  movement  of  the  worm — the  one  longi- 
tudinal, which,  on  contracting,  short- 
en the  worm;  and  the  other  circu- 
lar, which  make  the  body  smaller 
and  longer  when  they  contract.  In 
Fig.  248  is  a  representation  of  an 
Earthworm  at  #,  and  at  b  a  few  seg- 
ments magnified,  so  as  to  show  the 
bristles  pointing  backward.  The 
egg  of  the  Worm  is  curiously  con- 
structed, having  a  valve  at  one  end, 
as  seen  at  c.  At  d  the  young  worm 
has  opened  the  valve,  and  is  coming 
out.  These  worms  are  of  great  serv- 
ice to  the  farmer  and  gardener  in 
loosening  the  earth  below  the  reach 
of  the  spade  and  the  plow.  "  It  has 
been  lately  shown,"  says  Carpenter, 
"  that  they  will  even  add  to  the  depth 
of  soil,  covering  barren  tracts  with 
a  layer  of  productive  mould.  Thus, 
in  fields  which  have  been  overspread 
Fig.  248"— Lumbricus  Ter-  with  lime,  burned  marl,  or  cinders, 
restris,  or  Earthworm.  thege  substances  are  in  time  covered 
with  finely-divided  soil,  well  adapted  to  the  support  of 
vegetation.  That  this  result — which  is  commonly  at- 
tributed to  the  '  working  down'  of  the  materials  in 
question — is  really  due  to  the  action  of  the  Earthworms, 
appears  from  the  fact  that  in  the  soil  thus  formed  large 
numbers  of  '  worm-casts'  may  be  distinguished.  These 
are  produced  by  the  digestive  process  of  the  worms, 
which  take  into  their  intestinal  canal  a  large  quantity  of 


THE   WORM   AND   LEECH   TRIBE.  31o 

the  soil  through  which  they  burrow,  extract  from  it  the 
greater  part  of  the  decaying  vegetable  matter  it  may 
contain,  and  reject  the  rest  in  a  finely-divided  state.  In 
this  manner  a  field  manured  with  marl  has  been  covered, 
in  the  course  of  eighty  years,  with  a  bed  of  earth  aver- 
aging thirteen  inches  in  thickness." 

539.  The  order  Suctoria  includes  the  Leech  and  its  al- 
lies.    The  Leech  is  shaped  much  like  the  Earthworm, 
but  has  a  very  different  mouth,  and  a  different  apparatus 
of  locomotion.     It  has  a  sucker  at  each  end  of  its  body, 
and  walks  quite  fast  by  fixing  the  anterior  sucker,  and 
then  moving  the  posterior  one  up  to  it,  and  throwing  the 
whole  body  forward  from  this.     Its  mode  of  walking  is 
much  like  that  of  the  Measure- worms  (§  479),  though 
its  instruments  for  attachment  are  different.    It  can  also 
swim  very  well  by  a  waving  motion  of  the  whole  body. 
Its  mouth  is  in  the  middle  of  the  cavity  of  the  anterior 
sucker.     In  it  are  three  semicircular  saws,  which  make 
the  bite  of  the  Leech.     They  are  so  arranged  that  they 
work  from  a  central  point  outward,  and  make  a  wound 
of  this  ^  shape.     The  wound  being  made,  the  blood  is 
drawn  out  by  the  sucker. 

540.  The  sixth  class  of  the  Articulata,  that  of  the  Ento- 
zoa,  includes  worms  that  live  in  the  bodies  of  various  an- 
imals, man  among  the  rest.     I  will  notice  of  this  class 
only  those  very  singular  animals  which  appear  to  us  like 
long  horse's  hairs,  and  are  called  Hairworms.     We  see 
them  in  stagnant  water  or  in  moist  places ;  but  they  are 
really  inhabitants  of  the  bodies  of  various  insects,  and 
only  resort  to  the  water  to  lay  their  eggs.    If  taken  from 
the  water  and  left  to  dry,  they  become  stiff,  horny  threads, 
and  appear  to  have  no  life ;  but  put  them  into  water  again, 
and  they  are  soon  restored  to  activity. 

541.  The  remaining  class,  that  of  the  Rotifera,  or 
Wheel  Animalcules,  contains  animals  of  very  minute  size, 
some  of  them  being  less  than  the  five  hundredth  part  of 
an  inch  in  length.  Their  structure,  which  is  very  won- 


316  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

derful,  can  only  be  seen  by  the  microscope ;  and  this, 
from  their  transparency,  is  easily  done.  They  are  most- 
ly aquatic  animals,  and  have  one  or  two  rows  of  cilia,  or 
hair-like  filaments.  It  is  the  motion  of  these  that  gives 
the  apparent  wheel-like  rotation  from  whence  their  name 
is  derived. 

Questions. — What  does  the  class  Crustacea  include  ?  What  gives 
them  their  name  ?  In  what  respects  are  they  like  insects  ?  In  what 
element  do  most  of  them  live  ?  What  peculiar  provision  is  there  in 
one  of  the  exceptions  to  this  ?  What  is  said  of  the  legs  of  the  Crus- 
tacea ?  What  of  their  metamorphosis  ?  What  of  their  ring-like  ar- 
rangement? What  of  the  composition  of  their  covering?  What  is 
the  necessity  of  its  being  shed  from  time  to  time  ?  Describe  the  man- 
ner in  which  this  is  done  in  the  Lobster.  How  many  orders  have  the 
Crustacea?  What  animals  are  included  in  the  order  Decapoda? 
What  are  their  peculiarities?  What  is  said  of  the  Shrimps  and 
Prawns  ?  What  of  the  Hermit  Crabs  ?  What  of  the  Whale  Louse  ? 
To  what  order  belong  the  Barnacles  and  the  Acorn-shells  ?  Describe 
the  construction  and  habits  of  the  Barnacle.  What  are  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  class  Annelida  ?  How  many  orders  has  it  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  order  Dorsi-branchiata?  What  gives  the  name  to  the  Tu- 
bicola  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Serpula  ?  What  of  the  Terebella  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  order  Terricola  ?  What  of  the  eggs  of  the  Earth- 
worm ?  What  of  the  usefulness  of  those  animals  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  order  Suctoria  ?  What  of  the  class  Entozoa  ?  What  of  the  class 
Kotifera? 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

MOLLTJSKS. 

542.  THE  animals  of  the  sub-kingdom  of  the  Mollusca 
or  Mollusks  are  so  named  from  the  Latin  word  mollis, 
soft.  Their  bodies  are  soft,  and  moist,  and  cold,  as  you 
see  exemplified  in  the  Oyster  and  the  Slug.  All  animals 
that  live  in  shells,  with  some  few  exceptions,  already  no- 
ticed, belong  to  this  sub-kingdom.  But  some  belonging 
to  it  have  no  shelly  covering,  as  the  Slug  and  the  Cuttle- 
fish, and  these  are  said  to  be  naked. 


MOLLUSKS. 


317 


543.  The  Mollusks  have  no  skeleton  outside  or  inside. 
The  shells  which  some  of  them  have  are  mere  coverings, 
or  houses,  as  we  may  call  them.     They  do  not  serve,  like 
the  bones  of  the  Vertebrates  and  the  armor  of  the  Ar- 
ticulates, to  furnish  attachment  to  the  muscles  so  that 
they  may  act.     Those  Mollusks  that  lead  the  stillest  life, 
that  is,  which  use  their  muscles  least,  generally  have  the 
firmest  and  thickest  shells. 

544.  The  shell  is  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  with 
some  animal  matter,  while  in  the  bones  of  the  Vertebrates 
the  mineral  portion  is  the  phosphate  of  lime.     In  some 
the  mineral  part  predominates,  and  the  shell  is  very  hard, 
like  porcelain ;  while  in  others,  as  the  oyster,  there  are 
distinct  layers  of  the  mineral  matter,  with  a  membrane 
of  animal  substance  between  them.    The  shell  is  secreted 
from  the  thick  skin  of  the  animal,  which  is  called  the 
mantle.     It  is  formed  from  the  blood,  and  the  materials 
for  it  are  taken  in  with  the  food. 

545.  Shells  are  of  two  kinds — those  which  are  in  one 
piece,  and  those  which  are  in  two  pieces,  with  a  hinge  to 
keep  them  together.     Mollusks  that  have  the  first  kind 
of  shell  are  termed  univalve,  and  those  which  have  the 
second  are  termed  bivalve.     Clams  and  Oysters  are  fa- 
miliar examples  of  bivalves.    Two  varieties  of  univalves 
are  represented  in  Fig.  249. 


Fig.  249. 

546.  Shells  undergo  some  changes  in  form  as  they  grow 


318 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


with  the  growth  of  the  animals  in  them.  Sometimes  ad- 
ditions are  made  to  them,  entirely  altering  the  figure,  so 
that  two  animals  of  different  ages  really  of  the  same  spe- 
cies would  hardly  be  recognized  as  such.  In  Fig.  250  we 
have  at  a  and  b  back  and  front  views  of  the  shell  of  a 


Fig.  250. 

young  Mollusk,  and  at  c  and  d  similar  views  of  the  shell 
of  the  full-grown  animal.  The  addition  of  the  spines 
bears  some  analogy  to  the  addition  of  horns  in  some  of 
the  Mammalia. 

547.  Most  of  the  Mollusca  can  move  about  but  little, 
and  some  none  at  all.  They  have  but  little  muscle,  and 
are  in  this  respect  in  striking  contrast  with  the  Articu- 
lata,  which  are  nearly  all  muscle  (§  383).  It  is  only  where 
the  body  is  naked  (that  is,  without  a  shelly  covering),  or 
where  a  portion  of  the  body  can  be  projected  out  from 
the  opening  in  the  shell,  that  any  active  movements  can 
be  effected.  In  many  inhabiting  bivalve  shells  there  is  a 
fleshy,  tongue-like  projection  called  &foot,  which  in  some 
cases  enables  the  animal  to  leap ;  in  some  is  used  as  a 
boring  apparatus ;  in  some  acts  as  a  sort  of  fin  for  swim- 


MOLLUSKS.  319 

ming ;  and  in  some  produces  the  byssus,  a  collection  of 
threads  by  which  the  animal  attaches  itself  to  rocks  and 
other  objects.  In  most  of  those  which  inhabit  univalve 
shells  there  is  no  projecting  foot ;  but  the  under  side  of 
the  mantle  is  thickened  into  a  fleshy  disk,  which  by  its 
contractions  and  expansions  effects  the  progression  of  the 
animal,  as  is  seen  in  the  common  Snail.  Among  the  Mol- 
lusks  similar  to  these  in  structure,  but  having  no  shell,  the 
whole  mantle  is  muscular,  enabling  them  to  move  quite 
freely,  especially  those  that  live  in  water.  In  the  Cuttle- 
fish tribe  we  have  the  most  efficient  means  of  locomotion 
in  the  shape  of  arms,  and  in  some  of  this  group  there  are 
fin-like  appendages,  the  arms  being  quite  short. 

548.  Leading  such  a  sluggish  life  as  most  of  the  Mol- 
lusks  do,  their  destiny  seems  to  be  to  grow,  by  their  di- 
gestive powers,  into  a  well-fatted  mass,  so  that  they  may 
be  good  food  for  other  animals  that  inhabit  the  deep,  and 
some  of  them  for  man. 

549.  Almost  all  of  these  animals  breathe  by  gills ;  but 
some,  like  the  Snails  and  Slugs,  have  something  like  lungs, 
as  they  live  in  air.     The  blood  is  nearly  colorless,  and 
circulates  in  a  regular  system  of  arteries  and  veins  con- 
nected with  a  heart. 

550.  This  sub-kingdom  has  two  grand  divisions — the 
Cephalous  Mollusca  (ra^aX?),  kephale,  head),  those  which 
have  heads ;  and  the  Acephalous,  those  which  are  head- 
less.    I  will  first  speak  of  the  Cephalous.    All  belonging 
to  this  division  that  have  shells  have  those  which  are 
univalve.    The  Cephalous  Mollusks  are  divided  into  three 
groups:  1.  Cephalopoda,  those  which  have  feet  arranged 
in  a  circular  manner  around  the  head.     2.  Pteropoda, 
wing-footed.     These  have  a  pair  of  wing-like  expansions 
of  the  mantle,  which  serve  as  fins,  and  enable  them  to 
swim  quite  rapidly.     This  is  a  small  class,  but  a  very  in- 
teresting one.    3.  Gasteropoda,  belly-footed.    These  have 
a  single  broad  foot  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body. 
The  first  two  classes  belong  entirely  to  the  sea ;  but  this 


320 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


class  has  some  species  that  live  in  fresh  water,  and  some 
even  that  live  on  land.    I  will  notice  each  of  these  groups. 

551.  Of  the  Cephalopoda,  the  only  few  existing  species 
that  have  a  shelly  covering  are  the  Argonauts  and  the 
Pearly  Nautilus.     There  are,  however,  many  fossil  shells 

found  which  must  have  belonged 
to  animals  of  this  group.  The 
Ammonites,  commonly  called 
Snake  Stones,  of  which  a  speci- 
men is  given  in  Fig.  251,  are  the 
most  abundant  of  these,  there  hav- 
ing been  described  over  five  hund- 
red species.  These  are  found  in 
various  kinds  of  rocks,  and  are  of 
rig.  25i.-Ammonite.  various  sizes,  some  reaching  a  di- 
ameter of  even  four  feet. 

552.  The  arms  of  some  of  the  Cephalopods  are  very 
long.     This  is  the  case  with  the  Cuttle-fish,  one  of  the 
most  singular  of  animals,  seen  in  Fig.  252.     Its  body  is 


Fig.  252.— Cuttle-fish. 

soft,  and  is  covered  only  with  a  leathery  skin.  From 
around  its  mouth  extend  eight  long  arms,  which  have  on 
them  great  numbers "  of  little  suckers,  by  which  it  can 


MOLLUSKS. 


321 


cling  to  rocks  or  retain  its  hold  upon  its  prey.  It  has  a 
powerful  parrot-like  beak,  with  which  it  can  crush  the 
shell-fish  and  the  Crustacea  that  it  captures.  It  can  man- 
age even  a  large  Crab  in  this  way.  Winding  its  long 
arms  around  it,  and  holding  it,  both  body  and  claws,  with 
its  numerous  suckers,  it  deliberately  crushes  its  various 
parts  with  its  strong  mandibles,  and  picks  out  the  flesh. 
In  the  Indian  seas  this  animal  attains  so  large  a  size  as  to 
be  a  dangerous  enemy  even  to  man.  The  color  called 
sepia  comes  from  the  Cuttle-fish.  It  is  used  by  the  ani- 
mal for  darkening  the  water  with  an  inky  cloud,  that  it 
may  more  easily  escape  from  a  pursuing  enemy.  The 
so-called  cuttle-fish  bone  is  a  chalky  substance  secreted 
from  the  mouth  of  the  fish,  and  is  composed  of  almost  in- 
numerable plates  united  by  myriads  of  little  pillars. 

553.  The  Argonaut,  Fig.  253,  called  the  Paper  Nau- 
tilus, from  its  thin, 
white,  delicate  shell, 
has,  like  the  Cuttle- 
fish, eight  arms  with 
i  uckers.  Two  of 
these  are  expanded 
into  broad  membra- 
nous flaps.  From  ear- 
ly times  it  has  been 
said  that  this  animal 
uses  its  membranous 
arms  for  sails,  and  its 
other  arms  for  oars. 
It  has  been  found, 
however,  that  the 
membranes  are  not 
used  at  all  as  sails, 
but  are  usually  spread 
over  the  sides  of  the  shell,  meeting  along  its  keel.  It  is 
from  them,  and  not  from  the  surface  of  the  body,  that 
the  calcareous  secretion  is  poured  forth  for  the  enlarge- 
O  2 


Fig.  253— Argonaut,  or  Paper  Nautilus. 


322  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ment  or  reparation  of  the  shell.  It  is  by  the  action  of 
the  arms  as  oars,  and  by  the  forcing  out  of  water  from 
the  gill-chambers,  that  the  animal  can  swim.  Both  the 
Argonaut  and  the  Cuttle-fish  use  their  arms  as  feet  to 
walk  along  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

554.  The  Pearly  Nautilus  is  so  called  from  the  "  nacre," 
or  mother-of-pearl  with  which  its  shell  is  lined.     It  is 
found  on  most  shores  between  the  tropics.     It  is  pecul- 
iar in  having  many  separate  chambers  in  its  shell,  in  only 
one  of  which,  the  largest  and  the  outermost,  the  animal 
lives.    It  has  a  connection,  however,  with  the  other  cham- 
bers by  a  membranous  tube  called  the  siphuncle.     It  is 
supposed  that  the  animal,  when  it  wishes  to  sink  in  the 
water,  can  force  some  water  into  this  siphuncle,  thus  in- 
creasing its  specific  gravity ;  and  that  the  reverse  takes 
place  when  it  wishes  to  rise.     Some  doubt  this,  and  con- 
sider the  design  of  the  siphuncle  and  the  chambered 
structure  as  yet  a  mystery. 

555.  The  Pteropoda,  or  wing-footed  Mollusks,  consti- 
tute a  small  and  aberrant  group.     The  animals  included 
in  it  may  be  considered  as  having  the  same  place  in  the 
Molluscous  kingdom  that  the  Birds  have  in  the  Verte- 
brate and  the  Insects  in  the  Articulate.     They  fly  in  the 
water,  having  for  the  purpose  a  pair  of  fin-like  organs,  or 
wings,  which  are  an  expansion  of  the  mantle  on  each  side 
of  the  neck.    Though  the  number  of  species  in  this  group 
is  small,  the  number  of  individuals  in  some  of  the  species 
is  often  enormous  in  some  localities.     Some  have  a  shell 
and  some  have  not. 

J>56.  The  Clio  Borealis,  Fig.  254,  one  of  the  best  known 
of  this  class  of  Mollusks,  is  very  abundant  in  the  arctic 
seas,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  articles  of  food  of  the 
Whalebone  Whales  (§  192).  These  little  animals  are 
sometimes  so  numerous  that  the  Whale  can  not  open  its 
mouth  without  ingulfing  thousands  of  them.  The  Clio 
has  eyes,  which,  though  exceedingly  small,  are  very  per- 
fect in  their  organization.  It  has  powerful  jaws  armed 


MOLLUSKS.  323 


Fig.  254.— Clio  Borealis. 

with  teeth,  calculated  to  tear  in  pieces  the  minute  ani- 
mals on  which  it  feeds.  It  has  also  a  very  effective  ap- 
paratus for  securing  its  prey,  consisting  of  six  tentacula 
of  a  reddish  color.  On  examining  one  of  these  with  a 
microscope,  this  color  is  found  to  be  occasioned  by  red 
points  arranged  with  great  regularity.  On  magnifying 
these  still  farther,  each  point  is  seen  to  be  a  collection  of 
about  twenty  suckers  on  the  ends  of  as  many  stalks. 
Each  collection  is  in  a  sort  of  sheath,  and  can  be  pro- 
truded from  it.  There  are  on  all  the  tentacula  about 
three  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  of  these  suckers,  con- 
stituting an  apparatus  for  prehension  more  extensive,  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  than  any  other  to  be 
found  in  the  whole  animal  kingdom. 

Questions. — What  is  the  significance  of  the  name  of  the  third  sub- 
kingdom  of  animals  ?  What  are  naked  Mollusks  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  use  of  the  covering  which  most  of  them  have  ?  Of  what  is  it 
composed  ?  What  is  said  of  the  proportions  of  the  constituents  ?  How 
is  the  shell  formed  ?  What  are  the  two  kinds  of  shells  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  changes  which  shells  undergo  in  growing  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
locomotion  of  Mollusks  ?  What  is  said  of  the  foot,  and  its  various 
uses  ?  What  is  the  byssus  ?  What  provision  for  locomotion  is  there 
in  most  of  the  Mollusks  that  inhabit  bivalve  shells  ?  What  in  those 
that  are  similar  in  structure,  but  have  no  shell  ?  What  is  the  special 
destiny  of  Mollusks  ?  What  is  said  of  their  breathing  apparatus  ? 
What  of  their  blood,  and  its  circulation  ?  What  are  the  two  grand 
divisions  of  Mollusks  ?  What  are  the  groups  in  the  first  division,  and 
their  characteristics  ?  Of  the  Cephalopods,  what  shelly  species  exist 
at  the  present  time  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Ammonites  ?  Describe 
the  structure  and  habits  of  the  Cuttle-fish.  What  is  sepia?  What 


324  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

is  Cuttle-fish  bone  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Argonaut  ?  What  of  the 
Pearly  Nautilus  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Pteropod  group  ?  What  of 
the  Clio  Borealis  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

MOLLTTSKS  —  continued. 

557.  THE  class  of  Gasteropoda  is  mostly  composed  of 
Mollusks  that  live  in  a  univalve  shell,  which  is  usually  of 
a  spiral  shape.  You  have  two  different  forms  of  the 
spiral  in  Fig.  249,  page  317.  Some  of  the  species,  as  the 
Slug,  are  naked  or  destitute  of  shell.  There  is,  however, 
in  these,  sometimes  a  small  shell,  generally  imbedded  in 
the  mantle,  just  over  the  cavity  which  contains  the  lungs. 
The  body  of  the  Gasteropods  is  terminated  in  front  with 
more  or  less  of  a  head,  having  fleshy  tentacula,  varying 
from  two  to  six  in  number.  The  back  is  covered  with  a 
mantle  which  secretes  the  shell.  On  the  under  side  of 
the  animal  is  the  fleshy  mass  called  the  foot.  In  those 
which  have  a  shell,  all  the  body  remains  in  it  except  the 
head  and  the  foot.  These  project  beyond  it  when  the 
animal  expands  them  for  walking,  but  they  can  be  with- 
drawn into  the  first  turns  of  the  shell  at  pleasure.  In 
most  of  the  aquatic  Gasteropods  there  is  on  the  foot  a 
plate  of  horny  substance,  which  shuts  over  the  opening 


Fig.  255 — Limnsea  Stagnalis. 


MOLLUSKS. 


325 


in  the  shell  after  the  head  and  the  foot  are  drawn  in.  In 
Fig.  255  you  see  one  of  these  animals  with  the  head  and 
the  foot  out  of  the  shell. 

558.  Many  of  the  Gasteropods  are  remarkable  for  an 
abundant  supply  of  flinty  teeth.    Sometimes  these  are  on 
the  palate,  and  in  some  species  even  the  stomach  has 
teeth  scattered  over  its  inner  surface.     The  tongue,  in 
some,  is  remarkable  for  its  length,  and  for  the  teeth  which 
are  all  along  on  its  upper  surface.     The  tongue  of  the 
common  Limpet,  Fig.  256,  is  an  example.    It  is  from  two 

to  three  inches  long,  and  this 
is  longer  than  the  whole  an- 
imal. When  not  in  use,  it  is 
turned  backward  down  into 
the  stomach.  It  is  spoon- 
shaped  at  the  end.  In  its 
whole  extent  it  is  armed  with 
rows  of  teeth,  four  in  each 
row,  and  between  each  two 
rows  there  are  two  three- 
pointed  teeth.  These  two 
sets  of  teeth  are  represented 
in  a  magnified  portion  of  the 
tongue  in  the  figure.  The 
part  of  the  tongue  toward  its 
root  generally  has  its  edges 
turned  over  so  as  to  meet,  thus  making  a  tube.  The 
whole  instrument  is  therefore  an  efficient  rasper,  and  also 
a  proboscis. 

559.  Of  the  Gasteropoda,  some  are  terrestrial  and  some 
live  in  fresh  water,  but  most  of  them  are  found  in  the 
sea.     The  terrestrial  Gasteropods  are  Snails  and  Slugs. 
In  the  common  Slug  there  is  a  prominent  head  with  four 
tentacula,  which  can  be  drawn  inward  by  a  process  like 
the  inversion  of  the  finger  of  a  glove.     At  the  ends  of 
the  longer  pair  of  the  tentacula  are  the  eyes.     On  the 
back  there  is  a  kind  of  shield  formed  by  the  mantle, 


Fig.  256.— Limpet's  Tongue. 


326 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Fig.  25T.— Snail. 


which  usually  incloses  a  small  shell.  This  shield  is  over 
the  breathing  apparatus  (§  557),  and  the  head  can  be  so 
drawn  in  as  to  be  under  it.  The  Snails  have  very  much 
the  same  shape  and  arrangement  with  the  Slug,  except 
that  they  have  a  shell  into  which  they  can  withdraw  the 
whole  body.  The  common  Snail,  Fig.  257,  lays  eggs, 

which  are  very  large 
in  comparison  with 
the  size  of  the  ani- 
mal. They  are  of 
the  size  of  a  small 
^\  pea,  and  are  depos- 
ited in  the  ground 
about  two  inches 
below  the  surface. 

560.  A  few  of  the 
Gasteropods  that,  like  the  Snails  and  Slugs,  breathe  with 
lungs,  are  yet  aquatic  in  their  habits.  But,  like  other 
aquatic  animals  that  have  lungs,  as  the  Whales,  they  are 
obliged  every  now  and  then  to  come  to  the  surface  to 
get  air.  Among  these  are  the  Pond  Snails,  a  species  of 
which  is  represented  in  Fig.  255,  page  324.  These  Mol- 
lusks,  and  those  which  are  terrestrial,  the  Slugs  and  the 
Snails,  are  included  in  an  order  by  themselves,  as  having 
lungs — the  order  Pulmonifera. 

561.  The  second  order  of  the  Gasteropods  includes  all 
those  which  have  gills  instead  of  lungs,  and  also  have  a 
shell,  usually  of  a  spiral  form.    This  order  is  much  larger 
than  the  others,  and  presents  a  great  variety  of  beautiful 
shell-coverings.    Some  of  them  have  siphons  to  introduce 
water  into  the  cavities  where  the  gills  are,  so  that  the 
animal  can  breathe  without  putting  its  body  out  from 
the  shell.    There  is  a  little  notch  always  to  be  observed 
in  the  shell  where  this  siphon  passes  out. 

562.  Of  the  many  varieties  of  the  shells  of  these  Gas- 
teropods I  will  notice  but  a  few.     In  Fig.  249,  page  317, 
on  the  left,  is  an  example  of  the  Turbinidse,  or  Whorl  fam- 


MOLLUSKS. 


327 


ily,  called  the  Royal  Staircase  Wentletrap.  This  is  found 
in  the  Chinese  and  Indian  Seas.  It  is  so  costly- — a  fine 
specimen  commanding,  even  now,  four  or  five  pounds 
sterling — that  the  specific  name  attached  to  it  is  pretiosa, 
precious.  In  the  same  figure  is  a  specimen  from  the  very 
extensive  Cone  family.  In  Fig.  258  the  large  shell  is  that 


Fig.  258. 

of  a  Whelk,  belonging  to  a  family  which,  from  the  shape 
of  the  shells,  is  called  Buccinidae,  from  buccinum,  a  trum- 
pet. The  famous  Tyrian  purple  was  obtained  from  one 
of  this  family.  In  the  same  figure  is  the  little  Cowry, 
which  is  a  current  coin  among  the  natives  of  Bengal, 
Siam,  and  many  parts  of  Africa.  In  Bengal,  3200  of 
these  shells  are  reckoned  equal  to  a  rupee,  or  about  two 
shillings  of  English  money.  In  1849  about  three  hund- 
red tons  of  them  were  imported  into  Liverpool,  designed 
to  be  used  in  the  African  trade.  One  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  the  shells  which  are  armed  with  spines  is  the  Thorny 
Woodcock,  Fig.  259,  sometimes  called  Venus'  Comb. 


Fig.  259.— Thorny  Woodcock. 


328  NATURAL   HISTOEY. 

563.  There  is  a  third  order  of  the  Gasteropods,  in 
which  the  gills  are  not  in  a  covered  cavity  or  chamber, 
as  they  are  in  the  second  order,  but  they  either  stand  out 
on  the  back,  or  are  more  or  less  concealed  at  the  sides  in 
folds  of  the  mantle.  Some  of  them  have  shells,  but  most 
have  not.  I  will  give  but  a  single  example,  the  Glaucus, 
Fig.  260,  found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Indian  Seas. 

The  hues  of  these  beautiful 
animals  are  azure  blue  and  sil- 
ver. The  gills  form  two  or 
three  large  tufts  on  each  side, 
which,  besides  being  the 
breathing  apparatus  of  the  an- 
imal, are  also  its  instruments 
for  swimming. 

564.  We  now  come  to  the 
Fig.  m-Giaucus  Atlantic™.  second  grand  division  of  the 
Mollusks — the  Acephalous  or  Headless  Mollusks.  These 
may  be  divided  into  two  groups:  1.  Those  which  have 
shells,  called  the  Conchiferous,  or  shell-bearing.  2.  Those 
which  are  covered  with  a  leathery  or  membranous  tunic, 
called  the  Tunicated. 

565.  The  shells  of  almost  all  the  Conchifera  are  bivalve. 
This  group  includes  the  Oysters,  Clams,  Mussels,  Scal- 
lops, etc.    The  shell  is  exuded  or  secreted  from  the  man- 
tle, and  is  in  different  layers,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  shell 
of  the  Oyster.     The  outermost  layer  is  the  smallest,  and 
as  the  animal  grows,  each  layer  is  a  little  larger  than  the 
one  outside  of  it.     The  two  parts  or  valves  of  the  shell 
are  joined  together  by  a  hinge.     Near  this  hinge  is  an 
elastic  ligament,  which  allows  the  valves  to  be  a  little 
apart,  which  is  their  natural  position,  admitting  the  wa- 
ter freely  to  the  mouth  of  the  gills.     When  the  animal 
wishes  to  shut  the  valves  closely,  it  does  so  by  means  of 
a  muscle.     Sometimes  there  are  two  muscles  for  this 
purpose. 

566.  That  you  may  understand  the  plan  of  the  organs 


MOLLUSKS. 


329 


of  these  animals,  I  will  give  you  the  anatomy  of  one  of 
them  in  Fig.  261.     One  of  the  valves  is  removed.     You 

I  ll 

.•II  4 


/Anterior 
\Ganglia. 


Mantle. 


Respiratory  Tubes. 
Fig.  261.  —Anatomy  of  an  Acephalous  Mollusk. 

see  the  mantle,  fringed  all  around  its  edge.  This  lines 
the  whole  shell,  and  covers  the  animal.  It  is  its  skin. 
You  see  the  two  muscles  that,  by  their  contraction,  bring 
the  valves  together,  and  the  fleshy  foot,  which  can  be 
made  to  protrude  when  the  valves  are  left  to  go  apart  by 
the  action  of  the  elastic  ligament.  This  foot,  which  is 


330  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

the  only  locomotive  organ  that  the  animal  has,  serves,  in 
different  species,  a  variety  of  purposes,  sometimes  ena- 
bling the  animal  to  leap,  sometimes  being  used  to  bore 
into  sand  or  mud,  and  sometimes  only  serving  to  fix  the 
animal  to  some  solid  support.  In  some  there  proceed 
from  this  foot  a  band  of  hair-like  filaments,  called  the 
byssus.  While  fastened  to  some  object  by  these  fila- 
ments, the  animal  may  have  some  considerable  motion 
within  certain  limits.  The  gills  have  two  respiratory  or 
breathing  tubes  connected  with  them,  by  one  of  which 
the  water  passes  into  the  gills,  and  by  the  other  passes 
out.  The  water  is  made  thus  to  go  in  and  out  by  fine 
cilia  in  the  gills  and  on  the  surface  of  these  tubes,  which 
keep  up  a  constant  waving  or  fanning  motion.  There 
are  certain  nerves,  you  see,  branching  about,  and  they 
are  connected  with  two  pairs  of  ganglia,  or  little  brains. 
The  nervous  system  is  very  limited,  for  the  animal  has 
little  need  of  either  thinking,  feeling,  or  motion. 

567.  The  lateral  symmetry,  so  thoroughly  observed  in 
the  construction  of  the  Vertebrates  and  the  Articulates, 
which  was  forsaken  to  some  extent  in  the  Cephalous  Mol- 
lusks,  is  in  the  Acephalous-  entirely  given  up.     In  them 
there  are  no  two  corresponding  halves  of  the  body. 

568.  The  Conchifera  we  divide  into  two  sections — the 
first  including  those  that  have  not  siphons,  and  the  sec- 
ond those  that  have  them.     To  the  first  section  belong 
the  Oysters,  Scallops,  Pearl  Oysters,  etc.     The  shell  of 
the  Oyster  has  two  unequal  valves.    One  of  these  bulges 
out  more  than  the  other,  and  it  is  by  this  that  it  is  fast- 
ened to  rocks,  or  pieces  of  wood,  or  to  other  Oysters. 
The  structure  of  this  animal  is  even  more  simple  than 
that  sketched  in  Fig.  261.     It  has  no  foot;  for,  as  it  is 
fixed  by  its  shell  in  one  spot,  it  needs  none.    Oysters  are 
very  prolific  animals,  forming  immense  banks,  and  thus 
providing  quite  largely  for  the  sustenance  of  man.   "  But 
man,"  says  Carpenter,  "  is  by  no  means  the  only  enemy 
to  the  Oyster.     Its  body  serves  as  food  to  many  marine 


MOLLUSKS.  331 

animals,  which  have  various  modes  of  getting  at  it,  in 
spite  of  its  shelly  defense.  From  some  of  these  it  can 
secure  itself  by  closing  its  valves  as  soon  as  it  is  alarmed ; 
and  against  others  it  has  a  more  active  means  of  defense 
in  the  violent  expulsion  of  the  water  included  between 
them,  which  (as  it  is  itself  fixed)  will  frequently  drive  off 
its  opponent.  Various  animals  attack  it,  also,  by  perfo- 
rating its  shell ;  and  to  these,  also,  it  can  offer  a  passive 
resistance,  by  depositing  new  shelly  matter  within.  So 
that  even  this  lowly-organized  being,  commonly  regard- 
ed as  one  of  the  most  vegetative  of  animals,  is  provided 
by  its  Creator  with  such  means  as  are  necessary  for  its 
preservation,  and  doubtless,  also,  for  its  enjoyment." 

569.  Pearl  Oysters,  from  which  pearls  are  obtained, 
are  found  both  in  the  Old  and  New  World.     Ceylon  is 
famous  for  its  pearl  fisheries.     Pearls  are  globules  of 
"  nacre,"  which  chances  to  be  deposited  in  this  form,  in- 
stead of  being  spread  out  over  the  inner  surface  of  the 
shell ;  it  being  in  the  latter  case  called  mother-of-pearl. 
The  Pearl  Oyster  is  not  the  only  animal  from  which 
pearls  can  be  obtained.     They  are  often  found  in  other 
shells. 

570.  The  Pectens,  or  Scallops,  of  which  a  species  is 

given  in  Figure  262,  are  distin- 
guished by  the  regular  ribs  of 
the  shell,  and  by  the  two  angu- 
lar projections  that  widen  the 
sides  of  the  hinge.  They  have 
a  small  foot,  and  some  species 
have  a  byssus.  In  some  the 
shell  is  beautifully  colored. 

571.  Among  those  Conchif- 
erous  Acephala  that  have   si- 
phons are  the  Clam-shells,  the 
Fig.  262._scaiioP.  Cockles,  etc.   Among  the  Clam- 

shells is  one  which  is  the  largest  known  Mollusk.  It  is 
the  Tridacna,  or  Giant  Clam-shell,  found  only  in  the  In- 


332  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

dian  and  Australian  waters.  There  is  a  pair  of  these 
shells  in  the  Church  of  St.  Sulpice,  in  Paris,  used  as  re- 
ceptacles of  holy  water,  which  weigh  over  five  hundred 
pounds.  The  common  Clam  belongs  to  a  different  group, 
the  Veneraceae.  The  foot  of  these,  of  the  Cockles,  and 
of  the  Pholadacese,  the  group  to  which  the  Teredo  be- 
longs, is  used  mostly  for  burrowing.  Most  of  them  bur- 
row in  sand  or  mud,  some  in  rocks,  and  some  in  wood. 
Those  that  burrow  or  bore  in  hard  substances  can  not 
do  this  with  the  foot.  It  is  done  with  a  sort  of  rasping 
operation  of  the  edges  of  the  shell,  the  foot  answering  in 
this  case  only  as  a  means  of  holding  on  while  the  animal 
bores.  The  Teredo,  by  this  boring  operation,  is  largely 
destructive  to  ship  bottoms,  piles,  etc.  Holland  has  been 
sometimes  threatened  with  an  inundation  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  dikes  by  this  little  Mollusk. 

572.  One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  Mollusks  which 
burrow  in  sand  is  the  Razor-shell,  so  called  from  its  length. 
It  can  burrow  very  rapidly,  and  therefore  it  is  quite  dif- 
ficult to  catch  it.     It  bores  in  the  sand  with  its  foot, 
which  it  can  elongate  so  as  to  make  it  quite  pointed.    Its 
burrow  is  recognized  by  the  little  jet  of  water  which  it 
throws  out  when  it  is  alarmed.    If  a  little  salt  be  thrown 
upon  its  hole  it  will  make  its  appearance,  but  one  must 
be  quick  in  his  movements  to  catch  it  before  it  can  get 
out  of  sight  again.     Its  mode  of  burrowing  is  very  curi- 
ous.   It  puts  its  foot  into  a  dagger-shape,  as  represented 

at  a  in  Fig.  263,  and  thrusts  it  down- 
ward in  the  sand.  Now  it  gives  it 
the  shape  of  a  bell-clapper,  as  at  £, 
and  the  end  furnishing  it  a  hold  in 
the  sand,  it  moves  its  body  forward 
by  shortening  the  foot.  By  repeated 
Fig.  263.  movements  of  this  kind  it  gets  along 

quite  rapidly  in  the  loose  sand. 

573.  What  is  stated  in  the  previous  paragraph  exem- 
plifies one  of  the  many  modes  in  which  the  foot  of  Mol- 


MOLLUSKS.  333 

lusks  is  used.  Some,  thrusting  it  out,  attach  it  to  some 
support,  and  then,  by  contracting  it,  pull  themselves 
along.  Some  use  it  to  push  themselves  forward,  as  a 
man  in  a  boat  pushes  himself  from  the  shore  with  his  oar. 
And  some,  by  bending  the  foot  and  then  quickly  straight- 
ening it,  leap  forward.  There  is  a  little  Mollusk,  the 
lanthina,  or  Oceanic  Snail,  Fig.  264,  which  has  attached 


Fig.  264.— lanthina  with  its  raft. 

to  its  foot  a  raft  of  singular  construction.  It  is  made  of 
numberless  vesicles,  a,  filled  with  air.  Its  purpose  is  to 
float  the  eggs,  b.  You  see  at  c  the  gills  of  this  little  an- 
imal, and  at  d  its  tentacles  and  eye-stalks.  The  lanthina 
is  often  met  with  in  great  numbers  in  companies  in  the 
open  sea.  In  rough  weather  much  damage  is  often  done 
to  their  beautiful  floats,  and  sometimes  they  are  wholly 
destroyed. 

574.  The  Tunicataform  an  aberrant  group  of  the  Mol- 
lusca,  verging,  in  their  organization,  toward  the  Radiata, 
the  only  remaining  sub-kingdom  to  be  noticed.  Although 
it  would  be  interesting  to  consider  this  group,  I  shall  pass 
it  by.  I  shall  also  omit  another  class,  the  Polyzoa,  for- 
merly supposed  to  belong  to  the  Radiates,  but  recently 
ascertained  to  belong  to  the  Mollusks. 

Questions. — In  what  do  the  Gasteropods  mostly  live  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  form  of  their  shells  ?  What  is  said  of  the  naked  Gasteropods  ? 
Describe  th'e  structure  of  these  animals.  What  is  said  of  their  teeth  ? 
Describe  the  structure  of  the  Limpet's  tongue.  What  are  the  terres- 
trial Gasteropods  ?  Describe  the  common  Slug.  Describe  the  com- 
mon Snail.  What  is  said  of  the  Pond  Snails  ?  What  are  included 
in  the  order  of  Gasteropods  called  Palmonifera  ?  What  is  said  of  the 


334  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

order  whose  animals  breathe  by  gills  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Whorl 
family  ?  What  of  the  family  called  Buccinidae  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Cowry  ?  What  is  said  of  the  third  order  of  Gasteropods  ?  What  are 
the  two  groups  of  Acephalous  Mollusks  ?  What  are  the  shells  of  the 
Conchiferous  group  ?  What  does  it  include  ?  In  what  way  is  the 
shell  formed  ?  How  are  the  two  valves  united  ?  How  moved  ? 
What  is  the  anatomy  of  the  Acephala  ?  What  is  said  of  the  symme- 
try of  these  animals  ?  What  are  the  two  sections  of  the  Conchifera  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Oyster  ?  What  of  the  Pearl  Oysters  ?  What  of 
the  Pectens  ?  What  are  among  the  Conchifera  that  have  siphons  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Tridacna?  What  is  said  of  the  Cockles,  the 
Veneraceas,  and  the  Pholadacese?  What  of  the  Teredo?  What  of 
the  Razor-shell  ?  What  is  said  of  the  various  ways  in  which  the  foot 
is  used  by  Mollusks  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Ocean  Snails  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  Tunicata  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

RADIATES. 

575.  WE  now  come  to  the  last  sub-kingdom — that  of 
the  Radiates.     The  arrangement  of  structure  here  is,  in 
many  respects,  entirely  different  from  that  of  the  other 
sub-kingdoms.     There  is  a  lateral  symmetry  of  form  in 
the  Vertebrates  and  the  Articulates.    While  this  is  most- 
ly abandoned  in  the  Mollusks,  in  the  Radiates  it  is  ex- 
changed for  another  symmetry  of  a  wholly  different  char- 
acter— a  symmetry  of  rays  arranged  circularly.     It  is 
therefore  akin  to  that  of  plants.     Indeed,  many  of  the 
animals  of  this  sub-kingdom  were  formerly  supposed  to 
be  plants,  and  are  now,  from  the  resemblance  referred  to, 
called  plant-animals. 

576.  This  resemblance  may  be  very  distinctly  seen  in 
the  Actiniae,  or  Sea  Anemones,  of  which  there  are  many 
species.    The  structure  of  these  is  very  singular.    There 
is  a  broad,  flat,  muscular  base,  of  a  circular  shape,  by 
which  the  animal  adheres  firmly  to  a  rock.     From  this 
base  rises  a  rounded  body,  on  the  top  of  which  there  is 
an  orifice,  which  is  more  or  less  open  according  to  cir- 


RADIATES. 


335 


cumstances.  The  animal  can  close  this  opening  entirely. 
Around  this  mouth  of  the  animal  are  arranged  rows  of 
tentacula,  extending  out  like  rays  when  the  mouth  is 
open,  and  giving  the  creature  the  appearance  of  a  flower 
with  its  spread  petals.  Fig.  265  shows  Sea  Anemones  in 


Fig.  205 — Actiniae,  or  Sea  Anemones. 

three  different  states.  The  upper  one  has  the  mouth 
closed  and  the  tentacles  drawn  in,  and  the  animal  pre- 
sents almost  a  hemispherical  form.  The  one  just  below 
on  the  rock  is  partly  opened ;  and  another,  under  the  wa- 
ter, is  fully  expanded,  looking  like  a  flower. 

577.  The  mouth  of  the  Actinia  conducts  to  a  stomach 
which  may  be  said  to  be  very  large  in  proportion  to  the 
whole  body.  The  office  of  the  tentacles  is  to  catch  the 
prey  of  the  animal,  and  force  it  into  this  cavity.  Fig. 
266  represents  one  of  these  ani- 
mals cut  open,  showing  the  stom- 
ach at  a.  At  b  are  certain  cavi- 
ties or  chambers,  which  are  all 

\ a  around  the  stomach.     These 

chambers  all  communicate  with 
each   other,  and   also   with   the 
Fig.  266.  tentacles,  which  are  tubular. 


336  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Water  is  taken  into  the  chambers  by  these  tubes,  and 
then  is  forced  out,  through  these  same  tubes,  in  jets, 
with  such  force,  often,  as  to  rise  to  the  height  of  a  foot 
or  more.  The  chief  office  of  these  chambers  seems  to  be 
to  expose  the  blood  of  the  animal  to  the  air  in  the  water. 
In  other  words,  they  are  the  gills,  or  the  breathing  appa- 
ratus. These  animals  are  found  on  all  coasts,  commonly 
on  rocks,  where  they  can  be  a  part  of  the  time  under  the 
water  and  a  part  of  the  time  out  of  it.  Their  habits  I 
shall  refer  to  again  hereafter. 

578.  Tlie  radiate  arrangement  so  manifest  in  the  Sea 
Anemones  and  in  the  Starfish  (§  17)  is  not  seen  so  plain- 
ly in  many  of  the  other  animals  of  this  sub-kingdom ;  and 
some  of  the  orders  are  quite  aberrant.     In  some  there  is 
a  considerable  approach  to  the  Articulata.     The  Star- 
fishes and  the  Sea  Anemones  are  among  the  type  families 
of  the  Radiates. 

579.  Some  of  the  animals  of  this  sub-kingdom  have  the 
power  of  moving  about,  but  most  of  them,  in  conformity 
with  their  plant-like  character,  are  stationary  during  a 
part  or  the  whole  of  their  existence.     In  muscular  appa- 
ratus, therefore,  most  of  the  Radiates,  like  the  Mollusks, 
are  in  strong  contrast  with  the  Articulates. 

580.  There  is  a  resemblance  to  vegetables  in  still  other 
respects  besides  those  already  mentioned.     When  any 
parts  of  these  animals  are  lost  by  accident,  they  are  gen- 
erally replaced  by  a  new  growth.    Besides,  there  is  often 
a  new  animal  produced  entire  by  a  sort  of  budding  from 
some  part.    And  even  farther  than  this,  in  some  portions 
of  this  kingdom  the  animals  are  arranged  in  companies, 
like  the  parts  of  a  plant,  on  a  common  stalk  or  trunk. 

581.  None  of  these  animals  have  any  thing  like  a  head, 
and  they  have  only  the  senses  of  touch  and  taste.     The 
senses  of  sight,  hearing,  and  smell,  so  far  as  we  can  see, 
are  wholly  absent.    For  the  arrangement  of  the  nervous 
system,  I  refer  you  to  §  18. 

582.  As  in  most  of  the  Radiates  there  is  a  small  amount 


RADIATES.  337 

of  muscle,  there  is  a  very  remarkable  structure  which 
seems  in  some  respects  to  take  its  place.  This  structure, 
though  found  to  a  considerable  extent  in  other  animals, 
is  present  to  an  extraordinary  degree  in  the  Radiates. 
It  is  the  ciliary  structure  alluded  to  in  §  566.  Cilia  are 
fine  hair-like  filaments  which  cover  the  surface  of  many 
membranes,  and  fringe  their  edges.  They  are  quite  reg- 
ularly arranged,  sometimes  in  straight  rows,  and  some- 
times spirally  or  in  circles.  They  have  a  motion  which, 
in  some  cases,  is  obedient  to  the  will  of  the  animal,  but 
in  others  is  independent  of  the  will.  When  in  motion 
each  filament  bends  from  the  root  to  its  point,  straight- 
ening out  again,  like  a  stalk  of  grain  acted  upon  by  the 
wind ;  and  we  have,  therefore,  when  many  of  them  are  in 
motion,  an  appearance  like  the  successive  waves  in  a  field 
of  grain  as  the  wind  blows  over  it.  This  motion  can  be 
seen  only  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  It  is  beautifully 
displayed  in  the  gills  of  the  Oyster.  The  object  of  this 
movement  is  to  produce-  currents  hi  the  fluid  in  contact 
with  the  membrane.  These  currents  serve  various  pur- 
poses, as,  for  example,  to  bring  food  within  the  reach  of 
the  tentacles,  and  to  carry  fresh  portions  of  water  through 
the  respiratory  apparatus.  For  this  latter  purpose  cilia 
cover  the  membranes  lining  the  chambers  in  the  Actiniae 
(§577).  Cilia  are  needed  in  those  animals  which  are  most 
stationary,  and  in  them,  therefore,  they  are  most  manifest. 

583.  We  divide  this  sub-kingdom  into  three  classes : 
1.  Echino-dermata  (e^7»/oc,  echinos,  a  sea-urchin;  depict, 
derma,  skin),  prickle-skinned  animals.    2.  Acalephs  (ara- 
X?70r/,  akalephe,  a  nettle),  Sea-nettles,  or  Jelly-fishes.     3. 
Phytozoa  (^i/rov, phyton,  a  plant;  £woj/,  zoon,  an  animal), 
commonly  called  Polyps.     These  are  fixed,  like  plants, 
and  have  flexible  arms  about  the  mouth,  as  seen  in  the 
Sea  Anemone,  Fig.  266. 

584.  One  of  the  Echinoderms,  the  Starfish,  I  noticed 
in  the  first  chapter  (§  17).     It  merits  here,  however,  a 
more  particular  description.    It  is  only  the  upper  side  of 

P 


338  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  animal  which  is  represented  in  Fig.  9.  On  its  under 
side  are  great  numbers  of  little  feet.  With  these  it  walks 
along  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  searching  for  food,  which 
it  puts  into  its  mouth,  this  being  in  the  centre  of  the  star 
on  the  under  side.  These  feet  are  fleshy,  and  are  hollow 
tubes,  like  the  tentacles  of  the  Actinia  (§577).  They  are 
so  shaped  that  they  can  be  used  as  suckers,  and  the  animal 
can  shorten  and  lengthen  them  at  pleasure.  It  is  by 
pumping  water  into  and  out  of  them  that  the  suction  is 
effected .  In  walking,  the  suckers  are  some  of  them  thrown 
forward,  and,  taking  hold  of  the  surface  on  which  the  an- 
imal is,  and  then  shortening,  they  draw  it  forward.  It 
can  walk  up  the  side  of  a  smooth  rock  in  this  way.  The 
operation  can  be  seen  by  placing  one  of  these  animals  in 
a  glass  vessel  filled  with  water.  If  you  place  a  Starfish 
in  your  hand  on  its  back,  that  is,  with  its  feet  upward, 
you  will  see  these  little  suckers  reaching  forth  in  all  di- 
rections ;  and  if  you  look  at  them  with  a  magnifying 
glass,  you  will  observe  a  ring-like  arrangement  in  each 
sucker  as  it  lengthens  out,  quite  as  plainly  as  you  see  it 
in  a  common  worm. 

585.  These  animals  not  only  walk  with  these  suckers, 
but  they  seize  their  prey  with  them.     They  are  carniv- 
orous and  rapacious ;  and  in  taking  their  prey  they  fasten 
their  suckers  to  it,  and  work  it  up  to  the  central  mouth, 
which  is  opened  wide  to  receive  it. 

586.  Besides  the  motion  of  the  suckers,  the  five  arms 
on  which  these  are  can  be  moved  also  in  various  direc- 
tions.    In  some  species  there  are  little  red  spots  at  the 
ends  of  the  rays,  which  are  supposed  by  some  to  be 
eyes ;  but  this  is  very  doubtful. 

587.  The  order  Stellerida,  to  which  the  Starfish  be- 
longs, includes  a  large  variety  of  animals  having  a  gen- 
eral resemblance,  but  varying  in  the  relative  proportion 
of  the  body  and  the  rays,  and  the  arrangements  of  the 
latter.     In  some  species  there  is  little  else  but  arms,  while 
in  others  the  central  part  is  large. 


RADIATES.  339 


588.  The  Sea  Egg,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  is  the  crust 
or  shell  of  a  spiny  or  prickle-skinned  animal,  stripped  of 
its  spines.  In  Fig.  267  you  see  this  animal,  called  an 


Fig.  26T.— Shell  of  Echinus,  or  Sea  Urchin;  on  the  right  side  covered  with  spines, 
on  the  left  the  spines  removed. 

Echinus,  with  the  spines  removed  from  half  of  it.  These 
spines  are  curiously  jointed  with  the  shell.  There  is  a 
round  projection  of  the  shell  at  the  root  of  each  spine, 
upon  which  the  spine  works  with  its  cup-like  cavity,  mak- 
ing a  regular  ball  and  socket  joint.  These  projections 
every  one  must  have  noticed  arranged  with  such  beauti- 
ful regularity  on  the  Sea  Egg.  There  are  the  same  tubu- 
lar feet  as  in  the  Starfish,  but  much  larger,  and  therefore 
more  efiicient  in  taking  prey.  In  walking,  while  the 
suckers  are  the  moving  power,  the  animal  is  carried  for- 
ward on  the  spines,  these  acting  after  the  manner  of  a 
crutch.  The  animal  inside  of  this  singular  shell  has  a 
stomach,  a  respiratory  apparatus,  intestines,  etc.  Its 
mouth  has  quite  formidable  teeth.  Small  Crustacea  and 
Mollusca  are  its  chief  food. 

589.  The  shell  is  made  up  of  small  plates,  and,  as  the 
animal  grows,  each  one  of  these  plates  is  made  larger  by 
increase  at  its  edge.  The  growth  is  like  that  of  the  cov- 


340  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ering  of  the  Turtle.  If  it  were  not  for  this  arrangement 
the  animal  would  be  obliged  to  leave  its  shell  occasion- 
ally, and  have,  like  the  Lobster,  a  new  covering  formed. 

590.  The  Echini  (plural  of  Echinus)  are  generally  found 
on  sandy  shores.     Here  they  make  hollows  with  their 
spines,  and  in  them  lie  in  wait  for  their  prey.     As  they 
do  this  they  let  their  tubular  feet  play  about,  and  when 
any  Mollusk  or  Crustacean  happens  to  hit  a  sucker,  it  is 
at  once  captured,  many  suckers  taking  hold  of  it,  and 
passing  it  to  the  mouth  to  be  crushed,  and  thrust  into 
the  stomach. 

591.  Many  of  these  animals  have  a  powerful  and  com- 
plex masticating  apparatus.     It  consists  of  five  hard, 
sharp  teeth,  worked  by  strong  muscles.    These  teeth  are 
attached  to  bony  jaws,  and  the  whole  apparatus  has  twen- 
ty-five pieces,  moved  by  thirty-five  distinct  muscles.    It  is 
a  powerful  mill,  reducing  to  fragments  the  Crustacea  and 
Mollusks  which  the  tentacula  capture  and  force  into  it. 

592.  The  most  singular  of  all  the  facts  in  regard  to  the 
Echini  is  the  mode  of  their  development.     There  comes 
out  of  the  egg  an  animal  covered  with  cilia,  and  by  the 
waving  movement  of  these,  it  swims  freely  about  in  the 
water.     At  first  it  is  globular,  but  it  soon  acquires  a  py- 
ramidal form,  having  a  stomach  opening  below.    At  the 
same  time  there  are  formed  four  slender,  bony  rods  in 
the  four  angles  of  the  pyramid,  meeting  together  at  the 
top.     There  are  some  cross-pieces,  also,  on  the  sides  of 
the  pyramid,  connecting  the  rods  together.     All  this 
time  the  animal  is  moving  about  by  means  of  the  cilia, 
which  are  all  over  its  outside.     It  is  a  sort  of  pyramidal 
tent  sailing  about.     Inside  of  this  the  real  animal  is  at 
length  formed,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  tent-portion  of 
the  original  animal  wastes  away.     The  stomach  of  the 
animal  that  comes  out  of  the  egg  is  the  only  part  which 
remains  through  all  this  metamorphosis. 

593.  There  are  two  orders  of  the  Echinoderms  which 
are  quite  aberrant.     One  is  that  of  the  Crinoidea,  which 


RADIATES.  341 

derives  its  name  from  the  lily-like  form  which  some  of  its 
species  present.  Most  of  the  species  are  extinct,  but  they 
are  found  in  their  fossil  state  abundantly  in  limestone 
and  some  other  rocks.  The  other  aberrant  order  is  that 
in  which  are  those  animals  that  are  called  by  sailors  Sea 
Cucumbers,  from  their  resemblance  in  form  and  in  sur- 
face to  the  cucumber  of  our  gardens. 

594.  The  second  class  of  the  Radiata  is  that  of  the 
Acalephs.     These  animals  are  called  Sea  Nettles  and 
Stangfishes,  from  the  stinging  sensation  which  nearly  all 
of  them  can  inflict  on  being  touched.    They  are  also  call- 
ed Jelly-fishes,  from  their  great  softness.     Most  of  their 
bulk  is  merely  water.     Though  one  may  weigh  even 
many  pounds  when  first  taken  from  the  water,  when  it 
has  lost  all  its  fluid  parts  it  will  weigh  only  as  many 
grains.     There  are  many  species,  some  being  no  larger 
than  the  head  of  a  pin,  and  some  being  of  very  consider- 
able size. 

595.  One  of  the  most  common  of  these  animals  is  the 
Medusa.     This  is  often  seen  in  great  multitudes  floating 
along  near  the  shore  in  a  calm,  bright  day.    You  see  the 
shape  and  usual  position  of  the  animal  in  Fig.  268,  B. 


Fig.  268. 


Its  body  is  umbrella -shaped,  with  a  fringe  around  its 
edge.  It  is  by  a  waving  motion  of  this  umbrella  that  it 
moves  along  in  the  water.  Its  mouth  is  in  the  centre  of 
the  under  surface,  and  from  around  it  hang  down  four 
leaf-like  tentacula,  which  are  both  feelers  and  graspers 


342  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

of  its  prey.  These  tentacula  carry  the  food  to  the  mouth. 
The  stinging  power  possessed  by  them  is  probably  of 
service  in  overcoming  its  prey,  like  the  poison  of  the 
Scorpions  and  other  insects.  At  A  you  see  the  under 
surface,  showing  the  mouth  in  the  middle.  The  resem- 
blance in  arrangement  to  the  Actiniae  is  very  obvious, 
the  chief  difference  being  that,  in  the  one  group,  the 
mouth  is  above,  while  in  the  other  it  is  on  the  under  sur- 
face. The  Medusae  often  reach  a  considerable  size.  It 
is  said  that -they  have  been  seen  of  three  or  four  feet  in 
diameter,  and  of  even  sixty  pounds  weight.  Although 
they  are  such  watery  animals,  they  eat  solid  food,  for  in 
their  stomachs  have  been  found  small  Crustacea,  Mol- 
lusks,  and  even  Fishes. 

596.  The  Acalephs  generally  float  near  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  sometimes  are  seen  in  great  abundance 
basking  in  the  sun,  and  reflecting  its  rays  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  make  a  play  of  the  most  brilliant  colors.     The 
phosphorescence  sometimes  seen  in  the  sea  is  owing 
chiefly  to  small  Acalephse.    Carpenter  thus  describes  the 
beauty  of  this  phenomenon  as  witnessed  in  the  warmer 
latitudes:  "The  whole  surface  of  the  ocean  displays  a 
diffused  luminosity,  like  that  of  the  Milky  Way  on  a  clear 
night.     The  path  of  the  ship  is  marked  by  a  brilliant  line 
of  glowing  light.     The  waves,  as  they  gently  curl  over 
one  another  (this  phenomenon  is  never  seen  with  a  rough 
sea),  break  into  brilliant  spangles.     The  oars  of  a  boat 
rowing  over  them  seem  dripping  with  pearls  when  raised 
from  the  water,  and  every  stroke  is  marked  with  a  new 
line  of  brightness.     And  amid  this  general  splendor,  va- 
ried forms  of  more  glowing  lustre  are  seen  to  move — 
some  like  ribbons  of  flame,  some  like  globes  of  fire,  some 
gently  gliding  through  the  still  ocean,  others  more  rap- 
idly moving  just  beneath  its  surface." 

597.  To  the  Ciliograde  order  of  Acalephs  belongs  the 
common  Beroe,  Fig.  269,  which  is  thus  described  by  Dr. 
Harvey,  an  English  naturalist :  "  This  little  creature  is 


RADIATES. 


343 


met  with  in  summer  on  most 
parts  of  the  coast,  swimming 
near  the  surface,  and  may 
readily  be  taken  in  a  gauze 
drag-net.  It  has  a  melon- 
shaped  body,  from  half  an 
inch  to  nearly  an  inch  in 
length,  clear  as  crystal,  and 
divided,  as  it  were,  into 
gores  by  eight  longitudinal 
equidistant  bands  or  ribs. 
These  ribs,  when  minutely 
examined,  are  found  clothed 
with  innumerable  flat  plates 
resembling  the  paddles  of 
a  water-wheel  placed  one 
above  another,  and  acting 
under  the  control  of  the  will 
of  the  animal.  When  the 
Beroe  wishes  to  move,  these 
paddles  are  set  in  motion, 
and  by  their  united  action 
on  the  water  propel  the  liv- 
ing globe  of  crystal,  with  a 
swift  and  easy  motion,  for- 
ward or  backward,  as  it 
wills;  and  when  it  wishes 
to  turn,  it  merely  stops  the 
movement  of  the  paddles  on 
one  side.  The  cilia,  in  sunlight,  reflect  brilliant  prismatic 
colors,  and  in  darkness  flash  with  a  beautiful  blue  light. 
Delicate  as  are  its  organs  of  motion,  the  fishing  appara- 
tus of  the  Beroe  is  not  less  elegant.  This  consists  of  two 
long  and  exceedingly  slender  tentacula,  five  or  six  inches 
in  length  when  fully  extended,  but  capable  of  being  whol- 
ly drawn  within  the  body  of  the  creature,  where  they  are 
lodged  in  tubular  sheaths.  To  the  long  filament  is  at- 


Fig.  269.— Beroe. 


344  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

tached,  at  regular  distances,  a  multitude  of  shorter  and 
much  more  slender  fibres,  which  are  coiled  up  in  spirals 
when  the  main  filament  contracts,  and  gradually  spread 
out  as  it  lengthens.  These  are  very  similar  to  the  small 
hooked  threads  attached  at  intervals  along  a  fishing-line." 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  the  symmetry  of  the  Radiates  ?  What 
of  the  structure  of  the  Actiniae  ?  What  is  the  office  of  the  chambers 
around  the  stomach  ?  What  are  the  type-families  among  the  Radi- 
ates ?  What  is  said  of  the  locomotion  of  the  Radiates  ?  What  of 
their  resemblance  to  vegetables  ?  What  of  their  senses  and  nervous 
system?  What  are  their  cilia?  Describe  their  mode  of  action. 
What  purposes  do  they  effect  ?  What  are  the  three  classes  of  Radi- 
ates ?  What  is  the  structure  of  the  Starfish  ?  In  what  way  does  it 
walk  ?  How  does  it  take  its  prey  ?  What  is  said  of  the  motion  of 
its  arms  ?  What  is  said  of  the  order  Stellerida  ?  What  is  the  struc- 
ture of  the  Echinus?  How  does  it  walk?  What  is  the  plan  of  its 
shell,  and  how  does  it  grow?  Where  are  the  Echini  found,  and 
what  are  their  habits  ?  What  is  said  of  their  masticating  apparatus  ? 
What  is  the  mode  of  their  development  ?  What  is  said  of  two  aber- 
rant orders  of  Echinoderms  ?  What  animals  constitute  the  second 
class  of  Radiates  ?  What  are  their  peculiarities  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  Medusae  ?  How  are  they  like  the  Actinia,  and  how  unlike  them  ? 
Where  are  the  Acalephs  generally  seen  ?  What  is  said  of  the  phos- 
phorescence of  the  sea  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Beroe  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

RADIATES  —  continued. 

598.  WE  come  now  to  a  class  of  Radiates  including 
animals  which  are,  with  some  few  exceptions,  entirely 
different  from  those  of  the  classes  already  considered  in 
relation  to  locomotion.  Most  of  the  Echinoderms  crawl ; 
some  of  them,  and  all  the  Acalephs,  swim ;  but  the  Pol- 
ypes are,  for  the  most  part,  like  plants,  fixed  to  the  spot 
where  they  begin  life.  The  older  botanists  described 
these  animals  as  plants,  and  arranged  them  with  sea- 
weeds and  mosses.  The  Sea  Anemone  was  considered  a 
flower,  and  the  analogous  beings  found  in  coral  and  mad- 


RADIATES. 


345 


repore  were  spoken  of  as  blossoms  of  stony  plants.  It 
is  now  about  a  century  since  their  animal  character  was 
really  admitted  by  naturalists ;  and  it  is  only  quite  re- 
cently that  their  structure  and  habits  have  been  thor- 
oughly investigated. 

599.  The  Polypes,  or  Zoophytes,  have  the  most  simple 
construction  of  all  animals,  but  they  differ  from  each  oth- 
er in  the  degree  of  their  simplicity.    The  most  simple  of 
all  are  the  Hydras — little  Polypes  which  you  can  find  in 
stagnant  waters.     In  Fig.  270  you  have  a  representation 

of  one  of  these.  The  smaller 
figure  shows  it  of  the  natural 
size.  It  is  a  simple  sac  or 
purse-like  animal,  with  a  mouth, 
and  tentacula  arranged  around 
the  mouth.  With  these  tenta- 
cles or  arms  the  animal  catches 
its  prey,  and  puts  it  into  its 
stomach  through  the  mouth,  a. 
In  its  general  shape,  and  in  the 
working  of  the  arms,  it  is  much 
like  the  Cuttle-fish  (§  550).  Its 
tentacles  are,  however,  armed 
in  a  very  different  manner. 
They  have  neither  suckers,  like 

Fig.  270.-Hydra.  t^ose  Qf  t^e  Cuttle-fish,  nor  cil- 

ia,  like  those  of  many  animals,  but  minute  bristles,  and 
sharp,  firm  spines,  curiously  arranged.  These  spines  are 
concealed  in  wart-like  processes  when  they  are  not  in 
use,  but  they  can  at  any  time  be  thrust  out,  just  as  the 
claws  of  a  carnivorous  animal  are  protruded  from  their 
concealment  when  their  services  are  needed. 

600.  When  the  Hydra  is  searching  for  prey,  it  allows 
its  tentacles  to  float  about  in  the  water,  its  body  being 
fastened  by  a  sucker  to  some  solid  substance.    If  a  Crus- 
tacean or  an  aquatic  worm  happens  to  hit  one  of  them, 
the  arm  is  immediately  thrown  around  it,  as  you  see  in 

P2 


346  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  figure,  the  spines  being  forced  out  to  make  sure  the 
hold.  If  the  animal  caught  be  of  sufficient  size  to  require 
it,  the  other  arms  are  thrown  around  it  also,  and  the  vic- 
tim is  conveyed  to  the  stomach.  It  has  been  observed 
that  soft-bodied  animals,  if  held  for  a  little  while  in  the 
arms  without  being  swallowed,  always  die,  even  when 
released  alive ;  from  which  it  is  inferred  that  the  spines 
convey  a  poisonous  secretion  into  the  bodies  of  the  prey, 
as  do  the  fang  of  a  serpent  and  the  sting  of  a  bee.  As 
the  Hydra  can  not  do  this  to  Crustaceans  or  any  hard- 
shelled  animals,  they  do  not  die  at  once  on  being  swal- 
lowed ;  and  so  thin  is  the  texture  of  the  Hydra,  that  the 
outlines  of  these  animals  can  be  seen  as  they  move  about 
inside. 

601.  The  Hydra  has  some  power  of  locomotion.  When 
it  wishes  to  change  its  place,  it  does  it  with  a  movement 
like  that  of  the  Geometrical  Caterpillars  (§  479).  Bend- 
ing its  body  forward,  and  taking  hold  either  by  its  mouth 
or  its  tentacles,  it  raises  its  sucker,  and  advances  it. 
Then,  fastening  itself  again  by  this,  it  carries  forward 
again  the  upper  part  of  its  body  and  the  tentacles,  and 
thus  slowly  moves  to  the  desired  spot.  It  takes  several 
hours  to  march  two  inches  in  this  way,  and  seven  or 
eight  inches  may  be  regarded  as  a  good  day's  journey. 
But  sometimes  the  Hydra  gets  along  faster  by  executing 
a  series  of  somersets,  fastening  himself  by  his  tentacles, 
and  then  throwing  his  body  forward.  It  sometimes,  also, 
manages  to  sail  along  by  a  curious  contrivance.  It  raises 
its  flat  sucker  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  letting 
it  become  dry,  it  acts  as  a  sort  of  float,  the  animal  hang- 
ing down  in  the  water.  In  this  way  it  can  sail  over  con- 
siderable distances,  either  carried  along  by  the  wind  blow- 
ing on  the  float,  or  by  the  tentacles  acting  as  paddles. 
Though  there  is  little  of  positive  sensation  in  this  animal, 
and  therefore  but  a  low  degree  of  enjoyment,  it  undoubt- 
edly considers  this  ingenious  way  of  sailing  as  one  of  its 
best  sports. 


RADIATES.  347 

602.  The  Hydra  is  nothing  but  a  stomach  with  tenta- 
cles attached  to  it.     It  can  be  turned  inside  out  like  a 
glove,  and  fare  as  well  as  before,  showing  that  there  is 
little,  if  any  difference  between  what  may  be  called  its 
skin  and  its  inside  lining.    Trembley,  the  first  discoverer 
of  the  Hydras,  once  witnessed  a  very  singular  circum- 
stance :  "  Two  Polypes  had  seized  upon  the  same  animal ; 
both  had  partially  succeeded  in  swallowing  it ;  when  the 
largest  put  an  end  to  the  dispute  by  swallowing  its  op- 
ponent, as  well  as  the  subject  of  contention.     Trembley 
naturally  regarded  so  tragical  a  termination  of  the  affray 
as  the  end  of  the  swallowed  Polype's  existence ;  but  he 
was  mistaken ;  for,  after  the  devourer  and  his  captive 
had  digested  the  prey  between  them,  the  latter  was  re- 
gurgitated, safe  and  sound,  and  apparently  no  worse  for 
the  imprisonment." 

603.  Hydras  are  produced  in  two  ways.     One  is  by 
seeds  or  eggs.     These  are  thrown  out  by  the  animal  in 
the  autumn  in  the  form  of  gelatinous  globules,  and  in  the 
following  spring  Hydras  come  from  them,  and,  fastening 
themselves  to  some  stick  or  other  solid  substance,  begin 
their  quiet  but  predaceous  life.     Another  mode  of  pro- 
duction is  by  buds,  thus  allying  these  animals  in  a  marked 
manner  to  plants.     Buds  at  first  appear  as  slight  projec- 
tions from  the  outer  surface  of  the  body,  and  these  grad- 
ually become  perfect  animals,  at  length  separating  from 
the  parent  to  attach  themselves  to  some  solid  body.    The 
stomach  of  the  young  Polype  communicates  with  that  of 
the  parent  so  long  as  they  are  connected  together ;  and 
yet  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  both  struggling  for  the 
same  worm,  and  gorging  opposite  ends  of  it.    Sometimes 
the  young  Hydra  has  buds  start  out  from  its  body  before 
it  has  separated  from  the  parent,  so  that  we  have  three 
generations  in  one  group.     This  production  of  different 
generations  is  so  rapid  in  some  cases,  that  it  is  calculated 
that  above  a  million  descendants  come  from  one  animal 
in  a  month. 


348  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

604.  But  the  most  remarkable  fact  in  regard  to  the 
Hydra  is,  that  if  a  small  piece  of  its  body,  or  even  if  a 
tentacle  be  torn  off,  the  separated  part  will  itself  become 
a  perfect  animal.     Thirty  or  forty  Hydras  may  be  pro- 
duced by  cutting  a  single  one  into  pieces.     The  Hydra 
of  ancient  fable  seems  thus  to  be  realized  in  nature.    The 
Hydra  does  not  seem  to  suffer  at  all  from  mutilation,  but 
young  Polypes  sprout  abundantly  from  any  wound  that 
may  be  made.     Two  Polypes  may  even  be  grafted  to- 
gether by  their  cut  surfaces.     This  can  be  done  not  only 
with  those  of  the  same  species,  but  with  different  species, 
as  the  green  and  brown  Hydras. 

605.  There  are  some  Polypes,  belonging  to  the  same 
order  with  the  Hydras,  which  have  a  much  stronger  re- 
semblance to  plants  in  their  habits  and  arrangements. 

They  are  situated  on  horny 
stalks,  and,  in  some  cases, 
these  stalks  have  branch- 
es, with  cells  on  them,  for 
containing  the  little  Pol- 
ypes, as  seen  in  the  Sertu- 
laria,  Fig.  271.  The  stalk 
and  branches  here  are  hol- 
low, being  lined  with  a 
membrane  which  is  the 
essential  part  of  the  ani- 
mal, or,  rather,  of  the  com- 
munity of  animals  thus 
united  together.  Each  in- 
dividual Polype  may  be 
considered  as  having  a 
stomach  of  its  own,  but 
communicating  with 
a  sort  of  stomach  common 
to  them  all,  which  lines 
the  branches  and  the  stalk. 

Fig.  271.— Sertularian  Polypes.  There  is  in  thlS  TCSpCCt  an 


RADIATES.  349 

analogy  to  the  Hydra  during  the  temporary  connection 
of  the  young  Hydras  with  it,  their  stomachs  having  a 
communication  with  the  stomach  of  the  parent.  These 
beautiful  and  delicate  animals  were  formerly  supposed  to 
be  vegetable,  and  were  called  by  naturalists  sea  mosses. 

606.  Of  the  order  of  Polypes  called  Helianthoida  I 
have  already  noticed  quite  particularly  one  group,  the 
Actiniae  (§  576),  as  illustrating  well  the  characteristics 
of  the  Radiata.     There  need  to  be  added  here  to  what 
has  been  said  some  farther  statements  in  regard  to  their 
structure  and  habits.     It  is  the  beauty  of  the  expanded 
disks  of  these  and  other  allied  animals  that  gives  the  name 
Helianthoida  to  this  order,  this  word  being  derived  from 
two  Greek  words  meaning  sun  and  form.     In  the  trop- 
ics they  are  peculiarly  brilliant,  and  many  travelers  speak 
most  enthusiastically  of  the  gorgeous  spectacles  which 
groups  of  them  often  present. 

607.  Some  Actiniae  live  on  smooth  sands,  spreading 
out  their  tentacles  for  prey,  and  retiring  beneath  the  sand 
when  danger  threatens.     But  most  of  them  attach  them- 
selves to  rocks,  often  adhering  so  firmly  that  they  can 
not  be  detached  without  lacerating  them.     And  when 
portions  of  the  disk  are  left  fixed  to  the  rock,  new  ani- 
mals will  be  formed  from  them,  just  as  is  the  case  with 
sections  of  Hydras  (§  604).     There  is  one  species  that 
fastens  itself  to  some  shell ;  and  it  is  observed  that  the 
Hermit  Crabs  are  fond  of  taking  up  their  abode  in  such 
shells,  making  a  singular  sort  of  partnership. 

608.  The  muscular  structure  in  some  of  the  larger  spe- 
cies is  very  distinct,  and  exhibits  great  power  in  action. 
They  can  not  only  master  small  shellfish  and  Crustacea, 
but  even  Crabs,  Prawns,  and  other  Crustacea  of  consid- 
erable bulk.     The  mouth  is  capable  of  wide  distention, 
so  that  animals  can  be"  taken  in  which  one  should  suppose 
to  be  inadmissible.     It  is  amusing  to  witness  the  strug- 
gles of  some  animal  that  has,  in  walking  about,  come  over 
one  of  these  gaping  mouths,  as  it  is  caught  by  the  tenta- 


350  NATURAL   HISTORt". 

cula  and  thrust  down  into  the  capacious  stomach.  So 
voracious  are  these  animals  that  they  will  attempt  to 
swallow  articles  which  their  stomachs  can  not  possibly 
accommodate.  In  this  case  the  animal  will  perhaps  hold 
the  mass  partly  in  and  partly  out  of  the  stomach  firmly 
with  its  tentacles,  pushing  it  farther  in  as  fast  as  the  low- 
er part  of  the  mass  is  digested. 

609.  In  §  599  I  spoke  of  the  arrangements  of  the  ten- 
tacles of  different  animals.     The  structure  of  the  tenta- 
cles of  the  Actiniae  is  very  peculiar.     Their  power  of 
holding  on  is  owing  to  a  multitude  of  cells,  in  which 
there  are  coiled  up  in  a  spiral  form  fine  wire-like  fila- 
ments.   These  can  be  shot  forth  from  their  cells  to  a  con- 
siderable length,  and  this  being  done  with  a  multitude 
of  them  enables  the  animal  to  hold  on  fast  to  its  prey. 

610.  Some  of  the  Polypes  of  this  order  have  a  skele- 
ton.    It  is  formed  inside  of  the  animal  at  its  lower  part, 
and  it  is  fastened  to  the  spot  where  the  Polype  lives. 
We  may  consider  it  as  a  foundation  frame-work  for  its 
body.    Resting  on  this,  it  puts  forth  its  arms  continually 
to  take  its  food. 

611.  But  this  skeleton  differs  from  the  skeletons  of  all 
other  animals  in  one  respect.    Other  animals  retain  their 
skeletons  all  their  lifetime ;  but  the  Polype  does  not.    It 
is  constantly  making  new  skeleton.    It  is  a  singular  proc- 
ess, and  I  will  describe  it  to  you  with  its  results.    Th« 
very  lowest  part  of  the  Polype  is  continually  dying,  and 
with  it  the  skeleton  which  it  covers.     But  as  this  dies 
the  animal  keeps  its  full  size,  for  the  body  is  continually 
supplied  with  new  living  substance  on  the  borders  of  the 
dying  portion.    It  grows  just  as  fast  as  it  dies.    It  there- 
fore is  all  the  time  moving  upward,  making  new  skele- 
ton, and  leaving  the  old  below.     The  result,  you  plainly 
see,  would  be  a  column  of  dead  skeleton  with  the  Polype 
at  the  top  of  it.     In  this  column,  after  a  while,  the  living 
part  is  but  small  in  comparison  with  the  dead  part  below. 

612.  This  result  you  see  represented  in  Fig.  272,  one 


RADIATES.  351 

of  the  Caryophyllia.  Here  are 
two  stony  columns  formed  by  two 
Polypes.  The  animals  are  ever 
at  the  summits,  with  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  columns  in  their 
bodies  and  living.  The  rest  is 
like  dead  bone.  It  differs  from 
the  bones  of  common  animals  in 
its  composition.  Their  bones  are 
made  of  phosphate  of  lime,  while 
the  Polype's  skeleton  is  made  of 

Fig.  272._Caryophyllia.          ^    car^onate    of  lime,    Or    chalk, 

like  the  shells  of  the  Mollusks.  All  of  this*  stony  sub- 
stance forming  these  columns  is  supplied  from  the  blood 
of  the  Polype.  It  gets  into  the  blood  from  the  water, 
and  from  the  food  which  the  Polype  eats.  The  immense 
masses  of  coral  seen  in  some  localities  are  formed  there 
in  the  same  way  essentially  with  the  bones  of  the  Verte- 
brates and  the  shells  of  the  Mollusks  and  Crustacea. 
You  observe  in  the  figure  that  on  the  summit  of  one  of 
the  columns  there  are  two  Polypes,  one  being  larger  than 
the  other.  Here  is  the  beginning  of  a  branching  process 
which  is  very  common.  A  second  Polype  has  started 
out  of  the  side  of  the  original  one ;  and,  as  the  growth 
and  death  go  on,  now  there  will  be  two  columns  instead 
of  one  from  that  point.  And  as  these  grow  upward, 
there  may  be  still  other  divisions  in  the  same  manner. 

613.  Some  species  of  coral-forming  Polypes,  instead  of 
being  on  branches,  are  distributed  over  a  continuous  sur- 
face of  a  stony  or  calcareous  mass.  This  arrangement  is 
represented  in  the  Astrea  Viridis,  Fig.  273  (page  352). 
Here  is  a  rounded  mass  of  limestone,  made  up  of  the 
united  skeletons  of  Polypes.  Over  its  upper  portion  is  a 
fleshy  covering  connecting  the  Polypes  together,  making 
what  is  called  a  polypidom,  or  household  of  Polypes. 
At  a  a  are  the  Polypes,  out  of  their  cells  and  fully  ex- 
panded. At  b  b  the  animals  are  within  the  cells.  At  c  is 


352  NATURAL   HISTOEY. 

the  stone  uncovered  by  the 
flesh.  Among  the  expand- 
ed Polypes  are  seen  two 
which  are  out  of  their  cells, 
but  their  tentacles  are  not 
expanded. 

614.  It  is  chiefly  by  the 
coral-forming  animals  of  this 
order  that  the  coral  reefs 
and  islands  have  been  built. 
So  immense  are  the  works 

Fig.  273.—  Mass  of  Astrea  viridis.  which  large  companies  of 
these  animals  perform  here  and  there,  that  we  may  re- 
gard the  changes  which  they  produce  as  among  the  most 
important  to  which  the  earth  has  been  subjected,  at  least 
since  it  has  been  inhabited  by  man.  A  large  number  of 
the  Polynesian  Islands,  and  many  of  those  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  have  been  constructed  by  these  little  animals. 
They  are  continually  building  extensive  reefs,  also,  in  va- 
rious forms  and  in  different  positions.  Off  the  coast  of 
New  Holland  there  is  a  coral  reef  over  one  thousand 
miles  in  length.  Great  as  are  the  changes  now  going  on 
from  the  agency  of  these  little  architects,  it  is  supposed 
that  in  what  may  be  called  the  forming  ages  of  our  earth 
they  had  a  still  greater  agency,  in  the  formation  of  the 
limestone  rocks  which  constitute  so  large  a  part  of  the 
crust  of  the  globe. 

615.  There  is  another  order  of  Polypes  called  the  As- 
teroida,  from  the  star-like  appearance  of  the  tentacles. 
The  Red  Corals,  the  "  Organ-pipe  Corals,"  the  Sea  Fans, 
etc.,  belong  to  this  order.     Some  in  this  order  verge  to- 
ward the  sponges.     Their  habits  are,  for  the  most  part, 
so  much  like  those  of  the  other  Polypes  that  I  will  not 
dwell  on  them. 

616.  The  proper  place  of  the  Sponges  it  is  difficult  to 
determine.     If  they  are  really  animals,  they  are  of  the 
lowest  grade,  exhibiting  not  the  least  signs  of  sensation. 


RADIATES. 


353 


They  consist  wholly  of  a  substance  which  is  considered, 
from  the  smell  produced  by  burning  it,  to  be  much  like 
the  horny  substance  found  in  many  animals.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  pores — a  vast  number  of  minute  pores,  and 
here  and  there  larger  ones  among  them,  termed  vents. 
Examined  in  their  living  state,  it  is  manifest  that  from 
the  larger  pores  of  the  Sponges  water  is  constantly  pass- 
ing out  in  currents,  and  it  is  supposed  that  it  as  constant- 
ly passes  in  through  the  minute  pores.  This  is  analogous 
to  some  movements  that  occur  in  certain  animals.  The 
net-work  of  which  sponge  is  composed  is  found,  by  ex- 
amination with  the  microscope,  to  be  made  up  of  fine 
tubes.  One  hundred  and  fifty  different  species  have  been 
described  by  Lamarck. 

617.  In  Fig.  274  is  a  representation  of  a  section  of  a 


Fig.  274. — Section  of  living  Sponge. 

piece  of  sponge,  exhibiting  the  branches  which  conduct 
the  water  from  the  minute  interstices  to  the  large  vents. 
The  currents  which  come  out  from  these  vents  are  ren- 
dered apparent  by  the  minute  particles  of  matter  which 
happen  to  be  in  them,  as  represented  in  the  figure.  The 
Sponge  lives  on  the  water  and  what  the  water  holds  in 
solution,  and  for  its  growth  it  is  therefore  necessary  that 
water  should  be  constantly  circulating  through  it  in  the 
manner  which  I  have  described.  There  is  one  species  in 
which,  the  Sponge  being  of  the  shape  of  a  bottle,  the  ab- 


354  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

sorbing  pores  are  all  on  the  outside,  while  the  vents  are 
inside.  The  result  is  that  there  is  a  strong  current  of 
water  constantly  pouring  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  bottle. 

Questions. — How  do  the  Polypes  differ  from  the  other  classes  of  Ra- 
diates in  regard  to  locomotion  ?  Why  were  they  so  long  supposed  to 
be  plants  ?  What  is  said  of  their  construction  ?  -What  is  said  of  the 
structure  of  the  Hydra  ?  What  of  its  mode  of  taking  its  prey  ?  What 
of  its  locomotion  ?  What  is  stated  by  Trembley  ?  Describe  the  two 
ways  in  which  Hydras  are  multiplied.  What  is  said  of  mutilating 
them  ?  Wh  at  of  uniting  two  together  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Helianthoi- 
da?  Where  are  the  Actinia?  commonly  found  ?  What  is  said  of  their 
multiplication  from  portions  of  their  disk  ?  What  is  said  of  their  mus- 
cular structure?  What  of  their  mouths  ?  What  of  their  voracity? 
What  is  the  structure  of  their  tentacles  ?  What  is  said  of  the  skele- 
tons which  some  Polypes  have  ?  How  does  their  composition  differ 
from  that  of  the  skeletons  of  common  animals  ?  In  what  other  re- 
spect do  they  differ  ?  How  is  the  formation  of  the  skeleton  column 
exemplified  in  the  Caryophyllia?  Whence  comes  the  supply  of  the 
material  to  make  this  skeleton  ?  What  is  said  of  the  associated  Pol- 
ypes as  exemplified  in  the  Astrea  Viridis  ?  What  is  said  of  the  form- 
ation of  the  coral  reefs  and  islands  ?  What  of  the  agency  of  the  coral 
animals  in  the  forming  ages  of  the  earth?  What  is  said  of  the  Aster- 
oida  ?  What  is  said  of  the  structure  of  the  Sponges  ?  How  many 
species  are  there  ?  Describe  the  arrangement  of  the  Bottle  Sponge. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

CONCLUDING   OBSERVATIONS. 

IT  is  my  intention  in  this  chapter  to  retouch  some 
points  which  have  been  treated  of,  and  also  to  bring  out 
some  others  which  may  add  to  the  interest  of  the  gen- 
eral subject. 

618.  The  pupil  has  observed,  as  he  has  proceeded,  the 
adaptation  of  each  animal  to  its  circumstances  and  to  its 
mode  of  life.  This  has  been  seen  both  in  classes  of  ani- 
mals and  in  individual  cases.  I  will  refer  to  a  few  ex- 
amples of  this  adaptation  in  classes.  Birds  are  fitted  in 
both  their  internal  and  external  structure  (as  you  saw  in 


CONCLUDING    OBSERVATIONS.  355 

the  first  part  of  Chapter  XII.)  for  flight  in  the  air ;  while 
the  fishes  are  so  constructed  (§  353-357)  as  to  swim  eas- 
ily in  the  water.  And  then,  in  those  classes  of  birds  that 
are  designed  in  part  for  life  on  the  water,  there  are  spe- 
cial provisions  for  swimming  in  their  webbed  feet  and 
other  arrangements  (§  291).  Some  animals  are  carnivo- 
rous, while  others  are  herbivorous,  and  others  still  eat  a 
variety  of  food,  and  may  even  be  omnivorous,  like  man. 
The  adaptation  of  organization  in  these  different  cases 
has  reference,  as  you  have  seen,  both  to  the  kind  of  food 
and  to  the  mode  of  obtaining  it.  If  it  had  reference 
merely  to  the  former,  it  would  be  seen  only  in  the  teeth, 
the  jaw,  and  the  stomach.  But  in  its  reference  to  the 
latter,  it  is  observed  in  the  structure  and  arrangement  of 
the  organs  of  the  senses,  and  even  of  the  whole  frame. 
For  example,  in  the  carnivorous  animal  of  prey,  there 
must  be  a  full  development  of  the  senses  of  sight,  hear- 
ing, and'  smell ;  a  frame  capable  of  quick  movement ; 
strong  claws,  worked  by  stout  muscles,  to  hold  the  prey ; 
teeth  fitted  to  ,tear  it  in  pieces,  and  a  stomach  altogether 
different  from  that  of  the  herbivorous  animals. 

619.  The  adaptations  in  relation  to  temperature  are 
very  interesting.  Animals  that  live  in  cold  climates  have 
coverings  which  differ  greatly  from  those  of  animals  liv- 
ing in  warm  countries.  The  elephant,  with  his  scanty 
hairs,  is  in  strong  contrast  in  this  respect  with  the  shag- 
gy-coated bear.  Our  supply  of  furs  comes  from  north- 
ern regions,  from  animals  that  could  not  withstand  the 
cold  without  such  coverings.  As  the  horse  is  a  native 
of  a  warm  climate,  he  requires  the  blanket  in  our  winters, 
and  for  the  same  reason  the  cow  and  ox  need  to  be  bet- 
ter sheltered  than  is  ordinarily  done  among  the  farmers 
of  temperate  climates.  In  the  arctic  regions,  even  ani- 
mals that  are  protected  by  a  furry  covering  have  also,  as 
a  farther  defense  against  the  cold,  a  good  layer  of  fat, 
which  not  only  keeps  the  heat  in  by  its  non-conducting 
property,  but  also  aids  in  the  production  of  heat.  We 


356  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

may  notice  in  this  connection,  in  the  insect  world,  the 
special  provisions  against  the  cold  in  the  cocoons  which 
are  to  remain  through  the  winter  to  another  season 

(§  413)- 

620.  The  individual  adaptations  seen  in  the  different 
species   are   endless   in  variety.     Those   which  I  have 
brought  to  your  notice,  in  passing  through  the  four  sub- 
kingdoms  of  the  animal  world,  are  exceedingly  few  in 
comparison  with  all  that  might  be  gathered  up,  and  new 
ones  are  coming  to  view  every  day  in  the  researches  of 
zoologists.     Each  species  has  its  peculiar  habits,  and,  of 
course,  its  corresponding  adaptations  in  its  structure. 
The  study  in  this  respect  has  no  end,  and  the  fertility  of 
the  wisdom  and  skill  of  the  Deity  is  seen  to  have  no 
bounds.     The  humblest  observer  who  enters  this  field 
may  find  many  things  that  no  one  has  yet  recorded,  and 
thus  may  be  a  contributor  to  zoological  science. 

621.  Of  the  individual  adaptations  I  will  notice  a  few 
of  those  only  which  are  of  a  marked  exceptional  charac- 
ter.    The  whale  is  a  Mammal  having  lungs,  and  yet  it 
lives  in  the  water  like  the  fishes.     For  this  it  must  have 
an  especial  adaptation  in  the  arrangement  of  the  circu- 
lating system,  as  described  in  §  187.     So  also,  as  it  is  a 
warm-blooded  animal,  its  heat  must  be  kept  from  escap- 
ing too  rapidly  by  a  special  provision,  and  this  must  be 
in  consonance  with  its  fish-like  habits  (§  186). — The  bat 
is  a  Mammal,  and  yet,  as  it  is  destined  to  get  its  liveli- 
hood on  the  wing  and  in  the  dark,  it  has  peculiarly  con- 
structed wings  for  this  purpose  (§  58,  59,  and  60). — Most 
fishes  are  shaped  with  reference  to  ease  and  rapidity  of 
movement  (§  353).     Hence  they  are  like  boats  for  rac- 
ing, long,  spindle-shaped ;  and  they  have  no  projections 
like  a  shoulder  to  prevent  their  gliding  swiftly  through 
the  water.     But  there  are  some  exceptions,  as  in  the 
short,  big-mouthed  Lophius  (Fig.  172). — Its  habits  ex- 
plain the  reason  of  the  exception.     The  brain  of  man  is 
but  the  fortieth  or  fiftieth  part  of  the  weight  of  his  whole 


CONCLUDING   OBSERVATIONS.  357 

body,  and  yet  it  receives  about  the  fifth  or  sixth  part  of 
all  the  blood  in  circulation,  simply  because  the  amount 
of  thinking  done  there  requires  this  supply  to  keep  the 
instrument  of  thought  in  good  condition.  To  prevent 
this  great  amount  of  blood  from  flowing  too  rapidly  and 
forcibly  into  the  brain,  the  arteries,  as  they  enter  the 
skull,  are  so  arranged  that  the  flow  shall  be  circuitous 
rather  than  direct.  Then,  again,  there  is  a  farther  spe- 
cial provision  against  the  too  free  admission  of  blood  into 
the  brain  in  animals  that  hold  their  heads  downward 
much  of  the  time,  as  grazing  animals.  When  we  hold 
our  heads  downward,  very  uneasy  sensations  are  soon 
produced  from  the  undue  amount  of  blood  in  the  head ; 
but  in  the  grazing  animal  this  effect  is  prevented  by  a  di- 
vision of  the  arteries  into  a  net-work  before  they  enter 
the  brain.  In  this  connection  I  will  also  refer  you  to  the 
remarkable  provision  against  a  sudden  rush  of  blood  to 
the  head  in  the  deer  when  the  circulation  in  the  "  velvet" 
is  stopped  (§  164). 

622.  The  adaptations  which  we  witness  in  the  differ- 
ent conditions  of  animals  that  pass  through  a  full  meta- 
morphosis are  of  exceeding  interest.     That  the  adapta- 
tions of  a  crawling  worm  should  all  be  exchanged,  dur- 
ing the  sleep  of  the  animal,  for  those  of  a  beautiful  flying 
insect  (§  405),  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  things  in  na- 
ture.    Still  more  wonderful  is  the  change  of  adaptation, 
when  an  animal  fitted  to  live  like  a  fish  experiences,  in 
the  midst  of  a  state  of  full  activity,  internal  changes 
which  prepare  it  at  length  to  emerge  with  lungs  and 
wings,  leaving  its  skin  behind  it  in  the  water,  as  exempli- 
fied in  the  musquito  (§  502). 

623.  But  adaptation  is  displayed  in  the  most  interest- 
ing manner  in  the  relations  of  organization  to  the  capa- 
bilities of  animals.    The  more  an  animal  knows,  the  more 
complicated  is  its  structure,  or,  in  other  words,  the  more 
extensive  is  the  machinery  which  is  provided  for  the  use 
of  its  mind.     We  see  this  both  in  the  apparatus  of  the 


358  NATUEAL    HISTOEY.  , 

senses  and  in  that  of  voluntary  motion,  and  also  in  the 
nervous  system,  by  which  these  two  kinds  of  apparatus 
are  connected  with  the  mind.*  In  the  lower  orders  of 
animals  the  senses  are  very  imperfectly  developed,  and 
in  some  most  of  the  senses  are  absent.  Thus,  hi  the  Hy- 
dra (§  599)  and  in  the  Actiniae  (§  576)  there  is  no  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  but  one  sense,  that  of  touch. 
The  Actiniae  are,  indeed,  sensibly  affected  by  light,  but 
this  does  not  prove  that  they  see.  As  we  go  upward  in 
the  scale  we  find  the  apparatus  of  the  senses  generally 
more  and  more  developed.  Taking  all  of  them  into  view, 
the  senses  are  best  developed  in  man,  though  some  of 
them,  for  special  purposes,  have  a  higher  capacity  in  cer- 
tain animals  than  in  him.  Some  may  have  a  more  acute 
smell,  as  the  dog-,  or  see  farther,  as  the  eagle ;  but  no  an- 
imal has  all  the  senses  in  such  perfection  as  man.  The 
same  can  be  said  of  the  muscular  apparatus.  The  vari- 
ety of  muscular  action  is  greatest  of  all  in  man,  while  in 
some  animals  there  are  special  muscular  endowments  for 
special  purposes  above  any  thing  of  the  kind  to  be  found 
in  him.  The  gradation  in  the  nervous  system  is  still 
more  definitely  marked.  In  man  it  has  its  fullest  devel- 
opment ;  'and,  as  we  go  down  in  the  scale,  we  at  length 
come  to  animals  that  have  no  distinct  brain,  and  finally 
to  those  in  which,  as  the  hydra,  no  trace  of  any  thing 
like  a  nerve  can  be  found.  In  these  last  nervous  matter 
is  presumed  to  exist  because  actions  are  performed  which, 
in  animals  of  a  more  defined  organization,  are  known  to 
be  dependent  upon  nervous  agency. 

624.  Amid  all  the  variations  of  structure  to  suit  the 
different  wants  and  capabilities  of  animals,  the  Creator 
has  adopted  certain  general  plans,  so  that  order  prevails 
throughout  all  the  extreme  variety  of  the  animal  king- 
dom. "We  can  see  this  whether  we  take  into  view  large 

*  For  the  relations  of  the  senses,  the  muscles,  and  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, I  refer  you  to  the  chapter  on  the  Nervous  System  in  my  "First 
Book  in  Physiology." 


J/^'       OF  ^ 
OBSERVATI/KJ  ^  ^  Y  •£,  ffc£  I  ^ 


CONCLUDING 

groups,  as  classes  or  sub-kingdoms,  o\ 
families  or  genera.  It  is  in  the  typical  fojins  that  we 
have  these  plans  fully  brought  to  view ;  while  there  is  in 
the  aberrant,  in  proportion  to  the  degree  in  which  they 
are  so,  a  departure  from  these  plans,  or,  rather,  a  modi- 
fication of  them,  to  suit  the  particular  wants  and  habits 
hi  each  case.  Thus,  in  the  Vertebrates,  the  plan  of  the 
skeleton  is  very  perfectly  developed  in  the  higher  ani- 
mals, and  especially  in  man.  But  the  general  features  of 
the  plan  are  the  same  in  all  this  sub-kingdom.  This  may 
be  seen  if  we  take  the  skeleton  as  a  whole,  as  illustrated 
in  the  first  chapter,  or  if  we  look  at  some  particular  por- 
tion of  it,  as  the  arm  and  hand,  as  illustrated  in  regard 
to  the  flipper  of  a  Whale  (§  185),  the  anterior  extremity 
of  the  Dugong  (§  195),  the  wing  of  the  Bat  (§  58),  and 
the  wing  of  birds  (§  198).  In  the  Articulata,  the  ring- 
like  arrangement,  seen  so  decidedly  in  most  of  the  ani- 
mals of  this  sub-kingdom,  as  the  Centipede  (§  381),  is  not 
really  given  up  in  those  where  it  seems  to  be,  as  in  the 
Crab  tribe;  but  a  careful  observation  shows  that  it  is 
only  modified  by  making  some  of  the  rings  exceedingly 
broad,  while  others  are  made  exceedingly  narrow  (§  526). 
There  is  not  here  an  abandonment  of  the  general  plan, 
but  a  departure  or  aberration  from  it  to  some  extent, 
making  an  aberrant  form,  in  distinction  from  the  typical 
forms  where  the  ring-like  arrangement  is  fully  carried 
out.  What  I  have  thus  said  of  the  Vertebrates  and  the 
Articulates  is  essentially  true  of  all  parts  of  the  animal 
kingdom. 

625.  The  great  wonder  is  that  so  much  uniformity  of 
plan  can  be  made  consistent  with  such  extreme  variety, 
the  minutiaB  of  exact  adaptation  being  in  all  cases  fully 
carried  out.  There  would  have  been  a  much  smaller  dis- 
play of  wisdom  and  skill,  if  the  same  variety  had  been  at- 
tained without  the  extended  general  plans  which  we  see 
were  adopted.  None  but  omnipotent  power  could  so 
connect  endless  variations  in  minutiaB  with  so  few  typical 
forms  and  arrangements. 


360  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

626.  With  these  general  plans  there  is  in  every  animal 
a  marked  relation  of  each  part  to  every  other  part.    Ev- 
ery bone,  for  example,  not  only  has  its  exact  relation  to 
every  other  bone,  but  also  to  every  other  part  and  organ. 
It  is  from  this  harmony  existing  in  every  animal  frame 
that  the  zoologist  is  able  to  know  the  general  structure 
and  habits  of  an  animal  on  inspecting  a  single  bone  or 
tooth  belonging  to  it.     For  example,  suppose  that  he 
picks  up  a  tooth  with  two  stout  roots  and  a  sharp  cutting 
edge  rising  to  a  point,  such  as  you  see  in  Fig.  275.     Let 

us  see  what  he  can  know  in  regard  to  the 
animal  to  which  this  tooth  belonged.  First 
he  would  know  that  it  was  a  Vertebrate, 
for  no  teeth  at  all  like  this  are  ever  found 
m  an  anmial  outside  of  the  Vertebrate  class- 
es.  He  knows,  therefore,  that  this  animal 
had  a  brain  and  spinal  marrow,  that  its 
rig.  275.  senses  were  well  developed,  and  that  its 
blood  was  red.  Then  the  two  long  roots  show  that  the 
tooth  was  deeply  implanted  in  a  double  socket,  and  that 
the  animal  was,  therefore,  a  Mammal,  for  this  arrange- 
ment is  seen  only  in  that  class.  The  cutting  edge  of  the 
crown  indicates  that  the  animal  was  a  carnivorous  quad- 
ruped, and  that  its  jaws  moved  upon  each  other  with  a 
scissors-like  motion  (§  67),  and  not  a  grinding  one,  as  in 
the  herbivorous  quadrupeds.  It  may  be  inferred,  also, 
that  the  feet  were  not  hoofed,  but  armed  with  claws  for 
securing  the  prey,  and  that  the  muscles  both  of  the  limbs 
and  head  were  very  strong.  The  general  shape  of  the 
animal  (§  70)  can  also  be  made  out,  and  its  size  can  be 
estimated  from  the  size  of  the  tooth.  The  kind  of  stom- 
ach which  it  had  can  also  be  known  (§  68).  Baron  Cu- 
vier  had  great  skill  in  such  studies.  From  a  single  bone, 
or  even  a  piece  of  one,  he  could  picture  an  entire  skele- 
ton, and  describe  the  character  and  the  habits  of  the  an- 
imal. 

627.  The  general  plans  adopted  by  the  Creator  should, 


CONCLUDING    OBSERVATIONS.  361 

of  course,  be  our  guide  in  the  classification  of  animals,  so 
that  it  may  be  a  natural  and  not  an  artificial  classifica- 
tion. In  studying  nature  we  should  always  endeavor  to 
read  correctly  the  traces  of  the  mind  of  the  Creator. 

628.  The  distribution  of  animals  in  the  various  regions 
of  the  earth  is  a  very  interesting  subject,  but  my  limits 
will  allow  of  but  a  brief  notice  of  it.     Man  is  the  only 
animal  that  is  found  in  every  part  of  the  earth.     He  is 
thus  a  cosmopolite,  because  he  has  a  mind  that  can  con- 
trive clothing  and  habitations  suitable  to  every  variety 
of  climate.     Next  to  him  hi  general  diffusion  are  some 
of  those  animals  which  are  domesticated  by  him,  and  also 
some  which  follow  him  and  dwell  in  his  habitations,  as 
the  mouse,  the  rat,  the  fly,  etc.    Most  animals  are  limited 
to  certain  regions,  differing,  however,  in  the  extent  of 
their  diffusion — some  having  a  wide  range,  while  others 
are  confined  to  comparatively  narrow  limits.     Those  an- 
imals which  are  found  in  any  particular  region  or  coun- 
try are  said  to  constitute  its  Fauna,  as  the  flowers  found 
there  make  up  its  Flora.     We  speak  of  the  Faunas  of 
the  arctic,  the  temperate,  and  the  tropic  regions.     Then, 
also,  we  subdivide  these  into  Faunas  of  portions  of  these 
regions  of  greater  or  less  extent,  according  to  circum- 
stances.   The  dividing  lines  between  the  different  zoo- 
logical provinces  thus  marked  out  are  by  no  means  im- 
passable boundaries,  for  there  is  generally  a  mingling  of 
animals  near  the  borders  of  two  adjacent  Faunas.    Thus, 
although  the  Fauna  of  the  United  States  and  that  of  the 
region  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  very  distinct, 
yet  these  mountains  do  not  effoct  an  entire  separation, 
for  some  animals  of  either  Fauna  are  found  on  both  sides 
of  the  range. 

629.  The  Faunas  of  the  arctic  region  have  compara- 
tively few  species,  but  the  number  of  individuals  of  each 
is  often  immense.    Especially  is  this  true  of  the  fishes  and 
the  birds.    The  birds  are  mostly  of  the  aquatic  tribes — 
gulls,  cormorants,  ducks,  petrels,  etc.    All  the  animals 

Q 


362  NATURAL   HISTOEY. 

are  of  a  dull  color.  Not  a  bird  of  bright  plumage  is  to 
be  found.  Of  terrestrial  animals,  the  most  noticeable  are 
the  White  Bear,  the  Reindeer,  the  White  Fox,  etc. ;  and 
of  the  aquatic  Mammals,  the  Seals  and  the  Whales.  There 
are  no  reptiles,  few  insects,  and  no  coral  animals. 

630.  In  the  Faunas  of  the  temperate  regions  there  is 
much  greater  variety  than  in  those  of  the  arctic.     Ter- 
restrial animals  abound  here.     The  birds  exhibit  consid- 
erable variety  of  color.     One  of  the  prominent  features 
of  the  Fauna  of  the  temperate  zone  is  the  constant  change 
which  is  going  on  in  it  from  the  variety  in  the  seasons. 
Especially  is  this  true  of  the  northern  portion.     In  the 
colder  months  insect  life  has  retired  for  hibernation,  and 
vegetable  life  is,  for  the  most  part,  in  a  similar  state. 
The  sources  of  livelihood  for  many  animals  are  thus  cut 
off.     The  birds,  therefore,  migrate  to  warmer  regions, 
and  many  of  the  mammals  hibernate ;  and  in  the  spring 
the  mammals  wake  up,  and  the  birds  return,  making  na- 
ture, which  was  so  still  in  winter,  vocal  again. 

631.  Abundance,  variety  in  form,  and  brilliancy  of  col- 
ors are  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  tropical 
Faunas.    "  All  the  principal  types  of  animals,"  say  Agas- 
siz  and  Gould,  -"  are  represented,  and  all  contain  numer- 
ous genera  and  species.     We  need  only  to  refer  to  the 
tribe  of  Humming-birds,  which  numbers  not  less  than  300 
species.     It  is  very  important  to  notice  that  here  are  con- 
centrated the  most  perfect,  as  well  as  the  oldest  types  of 
all  the  classes  of  the  animal  kingdom.     The  tropical  re- 
gion is  the  only  one  occupied  by  the  Quadrumana,  the 
herbivorous  Bats,  the  great  Pachydermata,  such  as  the 
Elephant,  the  Hippopotamus,  and  the  Tapir,  and  the  whole 
family  of  Edentata.    Here,  also,  are  found  the  largest  of 
the  Cat  tribe,  the  Lion  and  Tiger.     Among  the  Birds,  we 
may  mention  the  Parrots  and  Toucans  as  essentially  trop- 
ical ;  among  the  Reptiles,  the  largest  Crocodiles  and  gi- 
gantic Tortoises ;  and,  finally,  among  the  articulated  an- 
imals, an  immense  variety  of  the  most  beautiful  insects. 


CONCLUDING   OBSERVATIONS.  363 

The  marine  animals,  as  a  whole,  are  equally  superior  to 
those  of  other  regions ;  the  seas  teem  with  Crustaceans 
and  numerous  Cephalopods,  together  with  an  infinite  va- 
riety of  Gasteropods  and  Acephala.  The  Echinoderms 
there  attain  a  magnitude  and  variety  elsewhere  unknown ; 
and,  lastly,  the  Polypes  there  display  an  activity  of  which 
the  other  zones  present  no  example.  Whole  groups  of 
islands  are  surrounded  with  coral  reefs  formed  by  these 
little  animals." 

632.  This  variety  is  made  more  striking  by  the  fact 
that  each  continent  has  many  animals  in  its  tropical  re- 
gion peculiar  to  itself.     Thus  the  Giraffe  and  Hippopota- 
mus appear  only  in  Africa ;  and  that  strange  animal,  the 
Sloth,  is  found  only  in  America.   The  300  species  of  Hum- 
ming-birds are  exclusively  American,  nearly  all  of  them 
being  tropical.     The  Sunbirds,  on  the  other  hand,  which 
are  somewhat  like  them,  do  not  appear  at  all  in  America, 
but  are  widely  scattered  over  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  isl- 
ands of  the  Pacific.  {  ti>! 

633.  Some  of  the  local  Faunas  have  prominent  pecul- 
iarities.    The  Fauna  of  Brazil  is  exceedingly  rich,  with 
its  gigantic  Reptiles,  its  Monkeys,  its  Edentata,  its  bril- 
liant Humming-birds,  and  its  wonderful  variety  of  insects. 
There  is  no  part  of  the  world  that  has  so  peculiar  a  Fauna 
as  Australia.     Here  are  great  numbers  of  Marsupial  ani- 
mals.    Here,  also,  is  that  strange  animal,  the  Duck-billed 
Platypus  (§  133)  ;  and  here,  too,  is  the  Black  Swan,  sup- 
posed to  be  an  impossibility  till  it  was  found  in  that  sin- 
gular country. 

634.  The  pupil  has  by  no  means  obtained  an  adequate 
idea  of  the  abundance  and  variety  of  the  animal  kingdom 
from  what  he  has  seen  in  this  book  of  its  different  depart- 
ments.    In  so  small  a  space  only  a  few  specimens  of  each 
group  could  come  under  consideration.     That  you  may 
have  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  field  which  zoology 
has  opened,  I  will  give  .you  some  statements  of  the  num- 
bers of  animals  from  Agassiz  and  Gould.    The  number 


364  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

of  species  of  Vertebrates  is  probably  20,000,  of  which 
the  Mammals  are  2000,  the  Birds  6000,  the  Reptiles  2000, 
and  the  Fishes  8000  or  10,000.  There  are  probably  over 
15,000  Mollusks.  The  Insects  are  the  most  numerous 
class  of  animals,  there  being  already  collected  from  60 
to  80,000  species.  Of  all  the  Articulates  there  are  about 
100,000  now  known,  and  it  is  safe  to  compute  the  whole 
number  at  200,000.  If  we  add  to  the  above  10,000  for 
the  Radiates,  we  shall  have  about  250,000  species.  It  is 
also  estimated  by  Agassiz  that  there  is  about  the  same 
number  of  species  of  fossil  animals ;  that  is,  those  which 
are  not  now  in  existence,  but  which  are  known  to  have 
existed  by  the  remains  that  we  find  of  them  in  the  rocks 
and  in  the  earth.  I  have  noticed  a  few  of  these  in  pass- 
ing, as  the  Mastodon  (§  139),  the  Iguanodon  (§  326),  and 
the  Ammonites  (§  551). 

635.  But  farther  than  all  this,  we  can  get  no  adequate 
idea  of  the  abundance  of  animal  life  if  we  do  not  take 
into  view  the  minuter  living  forms,  as  well  as  those 
which  are  ordinarily  noticed.  These  I  have  not  consid- 
ered, because  it  would  lead  me  into  too  wide  a  field. 
Quite  large  portions  of  the  earth — of  its  rocks,  and  mount- 
ains, and  sand,  and  mud,  and  dust — are  made  up  in  part 
of  the  remains  of  minute  animals,  called,  therefore,  ani- 
malculae,  or,  in  English,  animalcules.  Some  of  these  are 
so  small  that  their  structure  can  not  be  made  out  except 
by  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  and  some  can  not  even  be 
seen  at  all  by  the  naked  eye.  For  example,  the  stone 
used  for  building  in  Paris,  and  in  all  the  country  round 
it,  is  so  full  of  the  shells  of  an  animalcule,  that  there  are 
58,000  in  a  cubic  inch,  or  three  thousand  millions  in  a 
cubic  yard.  This  animal  belongs  to  a  group  which  are 
called  Foraminifera,  because  their  shells  are  full  of  little 
foramens  or  openings.  The  substance  within  the  cham- 
bers of  the  shell  is  mostly  a  translucent  jelly,  and  through 
the  openings  branch  out  root-like  legs,  on  which  it  is  cu- 
rious to  see  the  animal  walk.  Foraminifera,  perhaps  of 


CONCLUDING    OBSERVATIONS. 


365 


the  size  of  the  head  of  a  small  pin,  may  sometimes  be 
seen  thus  walking  on  the  glass  walls  of  an  aquarium;  and 
a  great  variety  of  species  can  be  found  in  the  sand  of 
most  sea-coasts,  as  any  one  may  see  if  he  examine  a  hand- 
ful of  it  with  a  pocket  lens.  In  the  chalk  formations 
there  are  remains  of  even  smaller  animals  than  these. 
Ehrenberg,  on  examining  chalk  very  minutely  divided, 
found  in  it  some  many-chambered  shells,  some  of  them 
whole  and  some  in  fragments.  He  calculated  that  there 
were  a  million  in  every  cubic  inch,  or  ten  millions  in  ev- 
ery pound.  He  was  able  to  discern  them  even  in  the 
glazing  of  a  visiting  card,  although  the  chalk  in  this  case 
had  been  subjected  to  such  minute  division  that  one 
would  suppose  all  trace  of  organization  to  have  been  lost. 
636.  The  earth  in  and  about  the  city  of  Richmond, 
Virginia,  is  filled  with  various  shells  of  Animalcule.  A 
portion  of  one  of  these  shells,  as  seen  through  a  power- 
ful microscope,  is  given  in  Fig.  276.  There  are  various 
species  of  this  shell,  called,  very  appropri- 
ately, Coscinodiscus  (sieve-like  disk),  va- 
rying in  size  from  the  one  hundredth  to 
the  one  thousandth  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter. The  guano  brought  from  the  island 
of  Ichaboe  is  found  to  contain  multitudes 
of  this  and  other  shells,  making  a  beauti- 
ful display  as  a  little  of  the  dust  is  placed 
in  the  field  of  the  microscope.  These 
shells  are  the  remains  of  animalculae  that 
lived  in  the  water  and  were  eaten  by  fish- 
es. Then  these  fishes  were  devoured  by 
sea-birds ;  so  that  these  shells  must  have 
Fig.  276.  passed  through  the  process  of  digestion 
twice,  and  after  that  were  exposed  in  the  guano-bed  to 
the  ordinary  causes  of  decay  perhaps  for  centuries ;  and 
yet,  says  Professor  Brocklesby,  "  under  all  these  influ- 
ences they  remain  unchanged,  and  the  eye  of  the  natural- 
ist at  last  detects  these  minute  structures,  still  possess- 


366  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ing  their  original  beauty,  with  the  delicate  tracery  of 
their  rich  configuration,  almost  as  sharp  and  clear  as  it 
was,  perhaps,  a  thousand  years  ago." 

637.  The  Tripoli,  or  rotten-stone  of  Bohemia,  which, 
when  ground,  is  used  as  a  polishing  powder,  is  full  of 
flinty  shells,  which  are  so  minute  that  forty  thousand  mil- 
lions are  contained  in  a  single  cubic  inch.     Other  in- 
stances, in  great  number,  could  be  cited,  from  various 
quarters  of  the  world,  of  large  deposits  of  the  remains  of 
animalcules,  in  rocks,  in  earth,  in  peat-bogs,  and  in  mud. 
Well  does  Lamarck  say  of  these  deposits,  that  "  it  is  by 
means  of  the  smallest  objects  that  Nature  every  where 
produces  her  most  remarkable  and  astonishing  phenom- 
ena.   Whatever  she  may  seem  to  lose  in  point  of  volume 
in  the  production  of  living  bodies,  is  amply  made  up  by 
the  number  of  individuals,  which  she  multiplies  with  ad- 
mirable promptitude,  to  infinity.     The  remains  of  such 
minute  animals  have  added  much  more  to  the  mass  of 
materials  which  compose  the  exterior  of  the  crust  of  the 
globe  than  the  bodies  of  Elephants,  Hippopotami,  and 
Whales."     In  §  614  I  spoke  of  the  agency  of  coral  ani- 
mals in  building  up  portions  of  the  earth  by  the  forma- 
tion of  their  skeletons ;  but  the  agency  of  these  animal- 
cules, by  means  of  their  remains,  is  vastly  greater. 

638.  The  name  Infusoria  was  given  to  animalcules  be- 
cause they  abound  in  infusions  of  decomposing  vegetable 
or  animal  substances.     By  some,  however,  this  term  is 
confined  to  those  animalcules  which  have  cilia,  by  which 
they  swim  through  water.     An  abundance  of  these  can 
be  obtained  in  warm  weather  from  the  surface  of  water 
in  ponds,  especially  where  there  is  a  reddish  or  green 
tinge,  or  a  slimy  layer.     In  Fig.  277  you  have  a  variety 
of  these  Infusoria.     They  move  about  very  freely  in  the 
water  by  means  of  their  cilia.    "  These  movements,"  says 
Carpenter,  "  are  extremely  various  hi  their  character  in 
different  species  ;  and  when  a  number  of  dissimilar  forms 
are  assembled  in  one  drop  of  water,  the  spectacle  is  en- 


CONCLUDING    OBSERVATIONS. 


367 


Fig.  277. 

tertaining.  Some  propel  themselves  directly  forward 
with  a  velocity  which  appears  (when  thus  highly  magni- 
fied) like  that  of  an  arrow,  so  that  the  eye  can  scarcely 
follow  their  movement ;  while  others  drag  their  bodies 
slowly  along,  like  the  Leech.  Some  make  a  fixed  point 
of  some  portion  of  the  body,  and  revolve  around  it  with 
great  rapidity ;  while  others  scarcely  present  any  appear- 
ance of  animal  motion.  Some  move  forward  by  a  uni- 
form series  of  gentle  undulations  or  vibrations ;  while 
others  seem  to  perform  consecutive  leaps,  of  no  small  ex- 
tent compared  with  the  length  of  their  bodies.  In  some 
instances  the  body  is  furnished  with  stiff  bristles  and 
hooks,  by  the  agency  of  which  the  animalcule  is  enabled 
to  run  and  leap  upon  the  stems  and  leaves  of  aquatic 
plants.  In  short,  there  is  scarcely  any  kind  of  movement 
which  is  not  practiced  by  these  animalcules.  They  have 
evidently  the  power  of  steering  clear  of  obstacles  in  their 
course,  and  of  avoiding  each  other  when  swimming  in 
close  proximity.  By  what  kind  of  sensibility  the  wonder- 
ful precision  and  accuracy  of  their  movements  is  guided 
is  yet  very  doubtful."  One  of  the  most  singular  of  these 
Infusoria  is  the  Baccillaria  Paradoxa,  which  is  composed 
of  several  parts  arranged  like  a  sliding  ruler.  It  moves 
along  by  sliding  these  parts  upon  each  other,  first  thrust- 
ing them  forward,  then  closing  those  in  the  rear  upon  the 
part  farthest  in  front. 


368  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

639.  Though  most  of  the  Infusoria  move  freely  about 
in  fluids,  some  are  attached,  like  Polypes,  to  some  solid 
base.  Many  of  them  are  not,  however,  always  thus  at- 
tached, but  have  the  power  of  loosing  themselves  from 
their  attachment  to  swim  off  by  their  cilia  to  find  some 
other  locality.  This  is  the  case  with  the  Bell-shaped  An- 
imalcules, one  species  of  which  is  represented  in  Fig. 
278.  The  body  of  the  animal  is  shaped  like  a  bell,  and 


Fig.  278. — Bell-shaped  Animalcules. 


its  margin,  which  is  its  mouth,  is  fringed  with  cilia.  The 
actual  length  of  its  body  varies,  in  different  individuals, 
from  the  one  two  hundred  and  eightieth  (2-J-o)  of  an  inch 
to  the  one  five  hundred  and  seventieth  (-5-7-0)'  The  tiny 
stem  by  which  each  animalcule  is  attached  has  a  muscle 


CONCLUDING    OBSERVATIONS.  369 

in  its  whole  length  by  which  its  direction  and  length  can 
be  altered.  When  the  little  creature  is  alarmed,  it  sinks 
down  quickly  to  the  place  of  its  attachment  by  coiling  its 
stem,  or  cable,  as  it  may  be  called.  In  some  cases,  as  at 
a  a  a,  there  are  two  animalcule  on  one  stem,  one  hav- 
ing grown  out  from  the  other,  after  the  manner  of  some 
of  the  coral  Polypes  (§612).  You  see  in  the  figure  some 
stems  without  any  animalcules.  Here  they  have  sepa- 
rated themselves  from  their  attachment  and  swum  away. 
It  is  an  emigration  to  better  their  condition  and  begin  a 
new  colony.* 

640.  The  field  to  which  I  have  in  this  book  introduced 
the  pupil  is  a  very  broad  and  fruitful  one,  and  on  every 
side  invites,  in  the  most  attractive  manner,  your  investi- 
gation.    Go,  then,  into  the  garden  and  the  field,  to  the 
sea-side  and  the  river-side,  to  the  pond  and  the  bog,  and 
watch  the  movements  of  animals,  and  gather  materials 
for  observation  at  home.    The  Aquaria,  now  so  properly 
becoming  fashionable,  furnish  admirable  means  for  carry- 
ing on  some  of  these  observations.     Even  with  but  a 
small  portion  of  your  time  devoted  to  the  investigation 
of  nature,  you  will  soon  find  that  you  do  not  need  to  go 
to  a  museum  to  see  the  wonderful  and  the  beautiful  cre- 
ations of  Almighty  power,  but  that  these  are  all  around 
you,  and  even  in  the  dust  beneath  your  feet. 

641.  The  animal  kingdom  is  a  great  harmonious  whole, 
with  all  its  forms,  from  the  minute  Infusoria  to  the  mon- 
strous Elephants  and  Whales,  having  fixed  relations  to 
each  other.    These  relations  are  not  all  known,  but  more 
and  more  of  them  are  every  day  discovered.     And  amid 
all  the  apparent  confusion  and  hazard  attending  the  nat- 
ural increase  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  destruction  effect- 
ed on  the  other  by  the  voracity  of  animals  and  other 

*  For  more  full  information  in  regard  to  the  Infusoria,  I  would  rec- 
ommend to  both  teacher  and  pupil  a  work  by  Professor  Brocklesby, 
entitled  "Views  of  the  Microscopic  World,"  published  by  Pratt,  Oak- 
ley &  Co. 

Q2 


370      .  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

causes,  a  superintending  Providence  maintains  the  gen. 
eral  harmony,  preventing  any  dangerous  permanent  in- 
crease or  destruction  of  any  species.  Multitudes  have, 
indeed,  been  destroyed  in  ages  long  gone  by ;  but  this 
was  for  definite  purposes,  which  the  geologist  has  been 
able,  for  the  most  part,  to  decipher. 

642.  Not  only  have  all  animals  relations  to  each  other, 
but  they  have  relations,  direct  or  indirect,  near  or  re- 
mote, to  man.  The  earth  is  his  residence,  and  all  things 
in  it  were  made  for  him.  Hence  it  is  that  in  his  organ- 
ization the  same  general  principles  are  in  play  which  we 
find  exhibited  in  the  animals  to  which  he  bears  the  rela- 
tions referred  to.  But  while  he  is  thus  linked  to  the  an- 
imal existences  around  him,  he  is  the  only  animal  on  the 
earth  that  is  destined  to  live  any  where  else.  He  is  link- 
ed to  other  higher  existences  by  the  possession  of  a  soul, 
which  has  been  very  properly  said  to  be  "  that  side  of 
our  nature  which  is  in  relation  with  the  Infinite ;"  and, 
by  virtue  of  this,  when  his  relation  to  the  animals  of  this 
world  ceases,  another  and  a  more  glorious  body  is  pro- 
vided for  him  with  adaptations  fitted  to  his  new  and 
eternal  condition. 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  adaptation  ?  What  of  it  in  birds  and 
fishes  ?  What  of  it  in  relation  to  carnivorous  animals  ?  How  are 
the  coverings  of  animals  adapted  to  climate  ?  What  is  said  of  the  fat 
of  animals  in  the  arctic  regions?  What  example  of  adaptation  to 
temperature  is  given  from  the  insect  world  ?  What  is  said  of  the  va- 
riety of  individual  adaptations  ?  How  is  the  organization  of  the  Whale 
adapted  to  its  mode  of  life  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Bat  ?  What  of 
fishes  ?  What  is  stated  in  regard  to  the  brain  of  man  and  of  grazing 
animals?  What  in  regard  to  the  "velvet"  of  the  Deer?  What  is 
said  of  adaptation  in  relation  to  the  metamorphosis  of  animals  ?  What 
is  said  of  adaptation  in  regard  to  the  capabilities  of  animals  ?  What 
are  the  relations  of  the  senses,  the  muscles,  and  the  nervous  system  to 
each  other?  What  is  said  of  the  senses  of  animals  ?  What  of  their 
muscles  ?  What  of  the  nervous  system  ?  What  is  said  of  the  general 
plans  of  the  Creator  ?  Illustrate  by  reference  to  the  Vertebrates  and 
to  the  Articulates.  What  is  there  especially  wonderful  in  the  carry- 
ing out  of  these  plans  ?  What  is  said  of  the  mutual  relations  of  the 


CONCLUDING   OBSERVATIONS.  371 

parts  of  an  animal  ?  Give  in  full  the  illustration  in  regard  to  a  tooth. 
What  is  said  of  Cuvier  ?  How  should  the  classification  of  animals  be 
made  out  ?  Why  is  man  a  cosmopolite  ?  What  animals  come  next 
to  him  in  extent  of  diffusion?  What  is  said  of  the  distribution  of 
most  animals  ?  What  is  a  Fauna  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Faunas  of 
the  arctic  regions  ?  Of  the  temperate  ?  Of  the  tropic  ?  What  cir- 
cumstance increases  the  variety  in  the  tropical  Faunas  ?  What  is 
said  of  some  of  the  local  Faunas  ?  Give  the  statement  of  the  num- 
bers of  species  in  different  departments  of  the  animal  kingdom  ? 
What  are  fossil  animals  ?  What  is  said  of  their  number  ?  Mention 
some  that  have  been  noticed  in  this  book,  and  give  some  facts  in  re- 
gard to  them.  What  is  said  of  minute  animals  ?  Give  the  statement 
in  regard  to  the  shells  of  Foraminifera.  Describe  the  structure  and 
habits  of  these  animals.  What  is  said  of  the  chalk  formations? 
What  is  said  of  the  shells  of  the  Coscinodiscus  ?  Of  the  Tripoli  ? 
What  of  animalcular  deposits  ?  Why  are  animalcules  termed  Infu- 
soria ?  To  what  animalcules  do  some  confine  this  term  ?  Where 
can  these  be  obtained?  What  is  said  of  their  forms  and  motions? 
What  is  said  of  the  Baccillaria  Paradoxa  ?  How  are  some  Infusoria 
like  Polypes  ?  Give  the  statement  in  regard  to  the  Bell-shaped  Ani- 
malcules. What  is  said  of  the  field  opened  to  you  in  the  observation 
of  nature  ?  What  of  the  mutual  relations  of  the  animal  world  ?  What 
of  the  preservation  of  them  by  Providence  ?  What  of  the  relations  of 
man  to  animals  ?  What  of  his  higher  relations  ? 


GLOSSARY. 


(The  numbers -refer  to  the  paragraphs  where  the  terms  may  be  found  explained.) 


Aberrant 70'Fauna 

Acalephs 583  Felidae 

Acephalous 564  Fissirostres. 

Amphibious 100  Foraminifera 

Animalcules 635  Fossil. 

Aphaniptera 419  Gallinaceous. 

Aptera 419  Ganglion... 

Aquatic 100  Gasteropoda. 

Arboreal 52  Genus. 

Asteroida 615 

Aurelia 486 

Bimana 24 

Branchia 535 

Buccinidse 562 

Byssus 566 

Canidse 64 

Carapace 10 

Carnivora 64 

Cephalopoda 550  Larva 

Cephalo-thorax 299  Lepidoptera. , 

Cephalous 550  Mammal, 

Cheiroptera 24 

Chrysalis 486 


Cilia 582  Marsupial 


Cirrhipoda 532 

Class 21 


Coleoptera 419  Nacre 


Conchifera 564 


Conirostres 236  Nictitating 

Crinoidea 593 


Elytra 398  Plantigrade 


628 

64 

236 

635 

634 

275 

15 

550 

21 

Haustellate 393 

Helianthoida 606 

Hemiptera 419 

Herbivorous 67 

Hymenoptera 419 

Imago 403 

Incubation 205 

Infusoria 628 

Insectivora 64 

403 

419 

23 

Mandible 214 

Mantle....         566 


64 


Mollusk 16 

Mustelidae 64 

554 


Neuroptera 419 


207 

Nocturnal 216 

Omnivorous 93 


Crustacea 521 

Decapoda 532  Order 21 

Dentirostres 236  Orthoptera 419 

Digitigrade 92  Oviparous 23 

Diptera 419 

Diurnal 216 

Dorsi-branchiata 535 

Echino-dermata 583 

Edentata 64 


Pachydermata 64 

Palpi 


394 


Pedimana 24 

Phocidse 64 

Phytozoa 583 

,     92 


374 


GLOSSARY. 


Plastron 314 

Pro-legs 479 


Pteropoda 550  Tenuirostres 

Pulmonifera 560  Terrestrial 

Pupa 402  Tunicata 

Quadrumana 42  Typical 

Eadiate 17 


Ehynchoto 491 

Rodentia 64 


Ruminantia 64  Vertebra., 

Siphuncle 554 


Species 21 

Sub-kingdom 21 


236 

100 

564 

70 


Unguiculata 24 

Ungulata 24 

Ursidse 64 


3 


INDEX. 


(The  numbers  refer  to  the  pages.) 


Acalephs 

Acephalous  Mollusks 

Actiniae 334, 

Aculeata 

Adaptation 

Adjutant 

Agile  Gibbon 

Air-bladder  of  Fishes 

Air-cells  of  Birds 

Albatross 

Alligators 

Ambergris 

Ambulatoria 

American  Race 

Ammonites 

Amphibia 

Anchovy 

Anemones,  Sea 

Angora  Goat 

Animalcules 

Ant-eaters 

Antelopes 

Antenna 

Ant-lion 

Ants 

Ants,  White 

Aphaniptera 

Aphidae 

Apoda 

Apples  of  Sodom 

Aptera 

Apteryx 

Arachnida 

Argonauts 

Argus  Pheasant 

Armadilloes 

Articulates 19, 

Articulates,  circulation  in 

Articulates,  nervous  system  of 


341  Astrea  Viridis 351 

328  Auks 182 

349Avocets 178 

274  Axis  Deer 98 

354 

177  Baboons 34 

33Babyroussa 82 

211  Badgers 61 

118  Bald  Eagle 129 

184  Banxrings 68 

195  Barnacles 311 

111  Barn  Owl 137 

255  Batrachia 204 

28  Bats 39 

320  Baxillaria  Paradoxa 367 

204  Bearded  Vulture 136 

221  Bears 58 

334  Beavers 71 

95  Bedbugs 293 

364  Bees 278 

73  Beetles 246 

99  Bell-shaped  Animalcules 368 

230  Berenice 286 

267Beroe 342 

276  Birds 115 

265|Bison 91 

298  Bivalves 317 

291 'Blackbirds 152 

221JBlind  Worm 200 

271  Bloodhound 51 

298;Blubber  of  the  Whale 109 

171:Bluebird , 148 

299|BlueJay 143 

321  Blue  Stocking , , 178 

169  Boas 204 

74  Bobolink 142 

225jBookLice 266 

226lBook  Scorpion 306 

19JBovidse 90 

85  [Bower-bird 144 


376 


INDEX. 


Brahmin  Bull 91  j  Circulation  in  Brain 356 

Brown  Thrasher 152  Circulation  of  Articulates 226 

Brush  Turkey 170  Circulation  of  Crocodiles 194 

Buccinida? 32 7  Circulation  of  Fishes 

Buffaloes 91  [Circulation  of  Mammals 


Bustards 173 .Circulation  of  Mollusks. 


209 
189 
319 

Butcher-birds 141,  44  8;  Circulation  of  Reptiles 189 

Butterflies 285!Cirrhipoda 311 

Buzzards 183jCivet  Cats 49 

Byssus 330  Clams 332 

Climbing  Birds 161 

Cabinet  Beetle 249  Clio  Borealis 322 

Cachelot 110  Clothes  Moths 288 

Caddice  Flies 268  Coaita  Spider  Monkey 36 

Camelopards 107  Cobra  di  Capello 203 

Camels 103  Cochineal 292 

Canidae 50  Cockles 331 

Canker  Worms 284  Cockroaches...,  ....  253 


Capabilities  of  Animals,  adap- 
tation in  relation  to 357 


Cocoons 238 

Cold-blooded  Vertebrates 187 


Capricorn  Beetles 250  Coleoptera 245 

Capridae 95  Colubrine  Snakes 202 

Capybara 72  Condor 135 

Carapace 18  Cone-billed  Perchers 142 

Carnivora 43;Cone  family  of  Mollusks 327 

Carrier  Pigeons 168,Coral 350 

Carrion  Beetles 248  Cormorant 185 


Caryophyllia 351 

Cashmere  Goats 95 

Cassowary 171 


Coscinodiscus 365 

Cowries 327 

Crabs ...  ..308 


Caterpillar-hunters 247  Cranes 175 

Caterpillars 282  Craw  of  Pigeon 166 

Cats 49  Creepers 160 

Caucasian  Race 27  Crickets 256 

Cecropia  Moth 241  Crinoidea 340 

Cedar-bird 153  Crocodiles 193 

Centipede 225  Crop  of  Birds 120 

Cervidse 96 1  Cross-bills 146 

Cetacea 108  Crotalidse 202 

Chalk  formations 365  Crows 143 

Chameleon 196|Crusader  Carrion  Beetle 249 

Cheese-hoppers 293|Crustacea 367 

Cheiroptera 23,  29  Cuckoos 164 

Chevaliers 286  Curculios 251 

Chickadee  ... 148  Cursores 170 

Chimpanzee 31  Cursoria 253 

Chipping-bird .'  142  Cuttlefish 320 

Chrysalids 236 


Chrysididas 272  Day-flies 

Cicada 290,Decapoda 

C-ilia, 337lDeer  .... 


264 
309 
96 


INDEX.  377 

Dentirostres 147 iFeet  of  Moles 67 

Dipper 151|Feet  of  Monkeys 30 

Diptera 293  Feet  of  Opossums 76 

Divers 182jFeet  of  Otters 57 

Dogs 50JFeet  of  Ruminants 88 

Dolphins 112 'Feet  of  Seals 62 

Domestication 28,  51  |Feet  of  Spiders 302 

Dorsi-branchiata 3 12 •, Feet  of  Starfishes 338 

Doves 165iFeet  of  Swimming  Birds 179 

Felidse 45 


Eagles 127 


Finches 142 


Earthworm 313!Fire-flies 250 

Earwigs 254!Fire  Hangbird 143 

Echidna 79JFishes 208 

Echinus 339  Fishes,  abundance  of. 214 

Edentata 73  Fishes,  circulation  in 209 

Eels 221lFishes,  eggs  of 215 

Egg,  formation  of  Bird  in  121,  ISljFishes,  shape  of. 210,  356 

Eggs  of  Crustacea 308'Fishes,  skeletons  of 212 

Eggs  of  Fishes 215;Fishing  Hawk 129 

Eggs  of  Insects 233:Fissirostres 154 

Eggs  of  Shark 216  Flamingo 181 

Eider  Duck 12ljFlatfish 220 

Electrical  Eel 222  Fleas 298 

Elephant 80  Flies 293 

Elephant  Seal 64:  Flipper  of  Whale 109 

Elks 97jFlounders 221 

Elytra ; 232;  Fly-catchers 152 

Emu 171  Flying-fish 211 

Entellus 33JFlying  Dragon 199 

Entozoa 315;Flying  Lemur 39 

Ephemerida3 264  Flying,  mechanism  of. 117 

Ermine 56  Foot  of  Mollusks 318 

Ethiopian  Race 28  Foraminifera 364 

Eyes  of  Camel 104  Formicida3 276 

Eyes  of  Felidae  and  Ruminants    90  Fossils 364 

Eyes  of  Fishes 212|Fowls 168 

Eyes  of  Insects 230  Franklin  on  American  Eagle  130 

Eyes  of  Spiders 305  Frigate  Pelican 187 

Frog-hoppers 291 

Falcons 126  Frogs 206 

Father-long-legs 306 


Fauna 361 


Gall-flies 270 


Feathers,  structure  of. 116|Gasteropods 324 

Feet  of  Beavers 71  Gazelles 101 

Feet  of  Camels 104  Gecko 198 

Feet  of  Elephants 80  Geese 180 

Feet  of  Felidse 45  Gibbon,  Agile 33 

Feet  of  Goatsucker 155  Gilded  Dandy 252 

Feet  of  Insects 232, Gills 209 

Feet  of  Jacanas 179iGiraffe 107 


378  INDEX. 

Gizzard  of  Birds 119  lanthina 333 

Gizzard  of  Insects 231  Ibex 95 

Glutton 61  Ibis 177 

Gnu 103  Ichneumon  family  of  Insects..  272 

Goats 95  Ichneumons 49 

Goatsucker 142,  154  Iguanas 198 

Golden  Eagle 127  Iguanodon 199 

Goldfinch 143  Imago 235 

Goshawk 131  {infusoria 366 

Gossamer  Spiders 303  Insectivora 66 

Grallatores 173  Insects 225 

Grasshoppers 257  Insects,  digestive  organs  of....  231 

Gravedigger  Beetle 249  Insects,  distribution  of 234 

Greatfoots 1701nsects,  metamorphosis  of 235 

Grebes 182  Insects,  respiration  of 228 

Grizzly  Bear 59  Itch  animal 306 

Grosbeaks 143  Ivory 81 

Grouse 169 

Gulls 183Jacanas 179 

Gyrfalcon 126  Jackals 54 

Jaguar 48 

Hairworms 315  Jays 143 

Half-winged  Insects 289 !  Jelly-fishes 341 

Halibut 221'Jerboas 71 

Hand,  capabilities  of. 24,  29|John  Dory 218 

Hares 72jJumping  Insects 256 

Hawks 131 

Hawksbill  Turtle 193|Kalong  Bat.: 42 

Hedgehog 68jKangaroo 76 

Helianthoida 349  Katydids 257 

Hemerobiidae 267  Kingbird 152 

Hemiptera 289  Kingfisher 157 

Hermit  Crabs 310  Kinkajou 62 

Herons...                                ..  176  Kites 131 


Herrings 221 


Kudu 102 


Hippopotamus 84 

Hive  Bees 279  Labyrinthic  Spider 304 


Honev-dew 292 


Lac 292 


Honey-suckers 160  Lady-birds 246 

Hoopoe 160'Laemodipoda 311 

Horn-bills 146JLampreys 222 

Horn  Bug 249  Language  of  Man  and  Ani- 

Horned  Horse 103 


Horse 84 


mals 27 

Lapwing 174 


Howling  Monkeys 37  Larva 235 

Humble  Bees 2 78 'Leaf-eaters 252 

Humming-birds 158JLeeches 315 

Hyanas 55jLegs  of  Birds 122 

Hydra 345  Legs  of  Crustacea 307 

Hymenoptera 269  Legs  of  Wading  Birds 173 

iLemurid®  37 


INDEX. 


379 


Leopards 48|Mud-wasp 275 

Lepidoptera 281  Musk  Deer 99 

Lightning  Spring  Beetle 250  Musk  Ox 94 

Limnaea  Spiralis 324|Musquitoes 

Limpets 325!Musquitoes,  eggs  of 

Lions 46  Musquitoes,  proboscis  of. 

Lizards 196  Mustelidse 

Llamas 106 

Locusts 258  Nacre 

Long-eared  Bat 40iNaked-eyed  Lizards 

Lophius 219  Narwhal. 


Loris 

Louse 298 

Lynxes 48 

Net-winged  Insects" 261 

Malay  Eace 28  Neuroptera 261 


Mammals 22 

Man,  hand  of 24 


Man,  relation  of  to  Animal 

Kingdom 24 

Man,  skeleton  of 14  Ocean  Snail 

Man,  superiority  of,  to  Ani- 
mals   25-27  Orang-outang 

Mandrill 35  Oriole 

Manidae 73  Orthoptera 

Mantis  Keligiosa 254  Oryx 

Manyplies 89  Osprey 

Marmosets 37  Ostriches. 

Marsupials 76  Otters 

Martins 156  Ounce 

Mason  Spider 304 


333 

Opossums 25,  76 


Mastddon 81 

Medusa...  ..  341 


Mermaids 114 

Metamorphosis  of  Insects 235 

Migration  of  Birds 123 


Migration  of  Fishes 215 

Mocking-birds 150  Pangolins, 

Mole-hills 67  Paradise,  Birds  of. 

Moles 66  Parrots.. 

Mollusks 316  Pearl  Oysters. 

Mongolian  Race 28 


Monitors 199 

Monkeys 33 

Moschidae 98 

Mother  Carey's  Chickens 183 


Moths ..  287Perchers 


Mound  Birds....  .   121 


Mouse 70  Peregrine  Falcon. 


295 

296 

296 

55 

322 
201 
113 


Natatores 179 

Nautilus 321 

Nest  of  Social  Wasp 276 


Newts 207 

Night-hawk 155 

Nightingale 148 


143 

253 

102 

129 

170 

57 

48 


Ovidas :...     95 

Owls 136 


Ox 90 

Melliferous  Aculeata 278  Oyster-catcher 1 74 

Membrane-winged  Insects  ....  269  Oysters 330 


Pachydermata 80 

Palm  Weevils 252 

Palpi. 


230 

73 

145 

162 

331 

331 

Pedimana 29 

Pelicans 185 

Pellet  Beetles 248 

Penguins 183 


Pectens. 


139 


Perching  of  Birds 122 


127 


380  INDEX. 

Petrels *. •...  183  Respiration  of  Whales 109 

Pheasants 168  Rhinoceros 83 

Phocidse 62  Rhinoceros  Birds 84 

Phosphorescence  of  Sea 342  Ricebirds 143 

Phytozoa 337  Robins 150 

Pigeons 165  Rodentia 68 

Pine  Marten 56:  Roe  of  Fishes 215 

Plans  in  the  Animal  Creation  358jRooks 144 

Plant-lice 191  Rorqual 112 

Plastron 191jRotifera 315 

Platypus 78  Rotten  Stone 366 

Plovers 174! Ruby-tailed  Flies 272 

Plumage  of  Birds 123  j  Ruminantia 87 

Polar  Bear 59  Ruminantia,  eyes  of 90 

Polypes 344  Ruminantia,  stomach  of 88 

Polyzoa 333,Running  Birds... 170 

Porcupine 71  Rusty  Vapor  Moth 288 

Porpoise 112 

Prawns 310  Sable 56 

Proboscis  of  Elephant 80  Salamanders 207 

Proboscis  of  Insects 229 j  Sanatoria 257 

Proboscis  of  Monkey 34|Sardines 221 

Pteropoda 322  Sawflies 274 

Puffins 182  Scale  Insects 292 

Puma 48  Scale-winged  Insects 281 

Pupa 235  Scallops 331 

Scansores 161 

Quadrupeds 43jScavenger  Beetles 248 

Quails 169  Scorpions 299 

Scratching  Birds 164 

Raccoon. 60  Sea-cows 114 

Radiates 334  Sea  Cucumbers .».  341 

Rails 179  Sea  Eggs 339 

Raptores 125  Sea  Fans 352 

Raptoria 254  Seahorse 218 

Rasores 164  Seals 62 

Rats 70  Sea,  phosphorescence  of 342 


Rattlesnakes 202 

Ravens 144 


Sea  Unicorns 113 

Secretary  Bird 130 


Rays 223  Senses  of  Birds 121 

Razor-shell 332  Senses  of  Fishes 212 

Redbird 143;Senses  of  Insects 230 


Reindeer 97 


Senses  of  Radiates 336 


Reptiles 187  Senses  of  Serpents 201 

Reptiles,  brain  of. 190  Serpents 201 

Reptiles,  circulation  in 189:Serpula 312 

Respiration  of  Actinias 336  Sertularia 348 

Respiration  of  Arachnida 300  Seventeen-year  Locusts 291 

Respiration  of  Fishes 208  Shad 221 

Respiration  of  Insects 228,  Sheath-bills 170 

Respiration  of  Mollusks...  319,  330 -Sheath- winged  Insects 245 


ESTDEX.  381 


Sheep 95 


Swallows 4 155 


Shells 317  Swans 181 

Shield-louse 292  Swift 155 

Shrew  Mouse 67  Swimming  Birds 179 

Shrikes 148  Swordfish 217 

Shrimps  310 

Sickle-bill 178  Tadpoles 204 

Silkworms 238  Tail  of  Birds 123 

Simiadaj 31  j Tail  of  Crocodiles 194 

Sirens 207jTail  of  Fishes 211 

Skeleton  of  Bat 39JTapir 82 

Skeleton  of  Camel 15  Teeth  of  Carnivora... 44 


Skeleton  of  Dugong 114 


Teeth  of  Echini 340 


Skeleton  of  Man 14  Teeth  of  Fishes 213 

Skeleton  of  Ostrich IGjTeeth  of  Gasteropods 325 

Skeleton  of  Perch 16  Teeth  of  Kodents 69 

Skeleton  of  Turtle 17  Temperature,    adaptation    in 

Skunks 56     relation  to 350 

Sloth 75  Tenuirostres 158 

Slugs 325JTerebella 313 

Snails 325|Teredo 332 

Snake  Lizards 200|Termites 265 

Snapping  Bugs 250Terns 184 

Snapping  Turtles 192;Terricola 313 

Snipes 1 77  Thorny  Woodcock 327 

Snow-bird 142  Thrushes 150 

Snowy  Owl 138(Tiger  Beetles 247 

Spanish  Fly 251|Tigers 47 

Span  Worms 284(Tinamous  Family 170 

Sparrows 142,Toads 206 

Spawn  of  Fishes 215JTodies 156 

Species  and  varieties 52JTongue  of  Chameleon 197 

Species,  defined 21JTongueof  Felidse 45 

Species,  number  of ».  363  Tongue  of  Frogs  and  Toads...  205 

Spermaceti  Whale 1 10 j Tongue  of  Humming-birds  ...  159 

Spiders 300,Tongue  of  Limpets 325 

Spinal  Marrow 18 |Tooth-billed  Birds 147 

Sponge 352|Torpedo 223 

Spoon-bills nejTortoises 191 

Spring  Beetles 250,Toucans 162 

Springbok 100  j  Tree-hoppers 291 

Squirrels 70,Tridacna 331 

Stag  Beetles 249,Tripoli  366 

Stang  Fishes 34liTrogons 157 

Starfish 20,  337|Troilus 286 

Starlings 143  Trumpeter 176 

Storks 177(Tubicola 312 

Sturgeons 219lTumble  Bugs 248 

Suctoria 815|Tnnicated  Mollusks 328,  333 

Sunbirds 159iTurbinidae 326 

Surinam  Toad 206iTurbot 220 


382 


INDEX. 


Turkey  Buzzards 135  Wax- wings 

Turkeys'. 168  Weasels. 

Tusseh  Silk 243  Web-feet. 

Tyrian  Purple 327 


Unicorns 

Univalves 317 

Ursidse , 

Vampire  Bat * 41 

Velvet  of  Deer 

Velvet-spotted  Beetle 

Venus'  Comb 

Vertebras 

Vertebrates 

Vespidas 

Viperine  Snakes 

Vultures..., 


Wading  Birds , 

Walking  Leaves , 

Walking  Sticks 255 

Walrus 65  Yak. 

Warblers 148  Yellow-bird , 

Warm-blooded  Vertebrates ....     22 

Wasps 275  Zebras. 

Water  Ousel 151  Zebus.. 

Water  Shrew 68 


153 

55 

179 


Weevils 251 

Whale  Louse 311 

83  Whales 108 

Wheel  Animalcules 315 

58  Whelks 327 

Whippoorwills 155 

White  Ants 265 

96  Whorl  family  of  Mollusks 326 

250  Wing-footed  Mollusks 322 

327  Wing  of  Bat 40 

13  Wing  of  Birds 116 

18  Wing  of  Insects 232 

275  Wing  of  Wax-wing 154 

202  Wolf 52 

134  Wolverine 61 

Woodcocks 177 

173  Woodpeckers 163 

255  Wrigglers 294 


93 
142 

85 
91 


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